The software complexity of nations

Sándor Juhász, Johannes Wachs, Jermain Kaminski and Cesar Hidalgo

Research Policy, 2026, vol. 55, issue 3

Abstract: Despite the growing importance of the digital sector, research on economic complexity and its implications continues to rely mostly on administrative records—e.g. data on exports, patents, and employment—that have blind spots when it comes to the digital economy. In this paper we use data on the geography of programming languages used in open-source software to extend economic complexity ideas to the digital economy. We estimate a country's software economic complexity index (ECIsoftware) and show that it complements the ability of measures of complexity based on trade, patents, and research to account for international differences in GDP per capita, income inequality, and emissions. We also show that open-source software follows the principle of relatedness, meaning that a country's entries and exits in programming languages are partly explained by its current pattern of specialization. Together, these findings help extend economic complexity ideas and their policy implications to the digital economy.

Keywords: Economic complexity; Open source software; Innovation; GitHub; Relatedness (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2026
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Citations: View citations in EconPapers (2)

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Working Paper: The Software Complexity of Nations (2026)
Working Paper: The software complexity of nations (2026)
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Persistent link: https://EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc:eee:respol:v:55:y:2026:i:3:s0048733326000132

DOI: 10.1016/j.respol.2026.105422

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