The Nexus Between Indoor and Outdoor Environmental Conditions and Teacher Perceptions in Naturally Ventilated Primary School Classrooms, in Ireland

David Honan (), John Garvey, John Littlewood, Matthew Horrigan and John Gallagher
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David Honan: Department of Civil, Structural & Environmental Engineering, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, D02 PN40 Dublin, Ireland
John Garvey: Kemmy Business School, University of Limerick, V94 T9PX Limerick, Ireland
John Littlewood: The Sustainable & Resilient Built Environment Research Group, Cardiff School of Art & Design, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff CF5 2YB, UK
Matthew Horrigan: Department of Business and Financial Services, Technological University of the Shannon, V94 EC5T Limerick, Ireland
John Gallagher: Department of Civil, Structural & Environmental Engineering, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, D02 PN40 Dublin, Ireland

Sustainability, 2025, vol. 17, issue 21, 1-24

Abstract: Indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort influence the health and cognitive performance of school occupants. This study investigated carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), thermal comfort, and ventilation rates (VRs) in eight naturally ventilated (NV) primary school classrooms in Ireland during October 2024, combining environmental monitoring with teacher surveys. Mean CO 2 concentrations ranged from 796 ppm to 2469 ppm, exceeding national guidelines in seven of the eight classrooms. NO 2 levels ranged from 3.4 µg/m 3 to 7.2 µg/m 3 , with indoor/outdoor ratios increasing with VRs and influenced by window orientation and road proximity. Indoor temperatures remained within recommended limits, while relative humidity ranged from 53% to 78% mirroring CO 2 trends and exceeding guideline levels in classrooms with lower VRs and temperatures. Occupied VRs ranged from 1.2 L/p/s to 4.1 L/p/s with window opening behaviours, reliant on teachers’ perceptions of thermal comfort, accounting for 84% to 96% of VRs. Ventilation in NV classrooms is often insufficient, yet increasing VRs can compromise thermal comfort and increase ingress of outdoor pollutants and noise. The findings highlight the ineffectiveness of current school ventilation standards, which rely heavily on user operation. Integrating occupant-led strategies, including scheduled purging, awareness campaigns, and pre-emptive air quality alerting, into policy offers practical, immediate pathways to improving IAQ, fostering healthy, sustainable learning environments.

Keywords: indoor air pollutants; thermal comfort; natural ventilation strategy; primary schools; healthy classrooms; carbon dioxide exceedance; nitrogen dioxide; ventilation rates; occupant behaviour; teacher perception (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: O13 Q Q0 Q2 Q3 Q5 Q56 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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