Smart Water Quality Monitoring Using a Hybrid Deep Learning Framework with Memory Network and Teaching–Learning-Based Optimization for Accurate LSI Prediction

Milad Sharafi (), Javad Behmanesh () and Vahid Rezaverdinejad ()
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Milad Sharafi: Urmia University, Department of Water Engineering
Javad Behmanesh: Urmia University, Department of Water Engineering
Vahid Rezaverdinejad: Urmia University, Department of Water Engineering

Water Resources Management: An International Journal, Published for the European Water Resources Association (EWRA), 2025, vol. 39, issue 15, No 6, 7969-7994

Abstract: Abstract Accurate prediction of the Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) is essential for assessing water stability, particularly in managing corrosion and scaling in water distribution systems. Traditional estimation methods often rely on parameters that are difficult to measure in situ, limiting their utility for real-time monitoring. This study proposes an advanced deep learning framework incorporating Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM), Clockwork Recurrent Neural Networks (CWRNN), and two hybrid extensions: CWRNN augmented with a Memory Network (CWRNN-MN) and a further optimized version using the Teaching–Learning-Based Optimization algorithm (TLBO-CWRNN-MN). Models were trained on pH, temperature, and total dissolved solids to enable rapid, cost-effective prediction of LSI without the need for complex laboratory analyses. While the LSTM model exhibited limited accuracy in early scenarios, its performance improved substantially with the inclusion of extended temporal inputs. Nonetheless, the hybrid architectures significantly outperformed the baseline models. In the most comprehensive scenario, TLBO-CWRNN-MN achieved the highest predictive performance (R = 0.982, RMSE = 0.054, NRMSE = 0.034), followed by CWRNN-MN (R = 0.972, RMSE = 0.079, NRMSE = 0.049), underscoring the effectiveness of integrating memory components and metaheuristic optimization in capturing nonlinear temporal dependencies. These findings are especially pertinent to regions such as West Azerbaijan Province, where escalating water scarcity and groundwater depletion have intensified ecological vulnerabilities, notably the decline of Lake Urmia. The proposed models offer a scalable and reliable approach to predictive water quality management, providing critical support for infrastructure sustainability and long-term environmental stewardship.

Keywords: Langelier saturation index; Deep learning; Neural network; Water quality; Groundwater management (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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DOI: 10.1007/s11269-025-04325-0

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