From the Ideal Worker to the Inclusive Worker: Measuring Norm Shifts Within Occupational Contexts

Jan Müller and Heejung Chung

Gender, Work and Organization, 2026, vol. 33, issue 1, 261-276

Abstract: Research shows that the ideal worker norm—the masculine‐gendered expectation of unlimited work devotion—perpetuates class and gender inequality, increases turnover rates, and negatively affects job satisfaction and work–life balance. Occupational research typically measures this norm through the share of employees working full‐time or long hours. We advocate for a more comprehensive approach by (1) extracting employers' normative expectations from job adverts using machine learning, (2) separately quantifying the masculine‐centric nature of this norm, and (3) tracing the norm's occupation‐specific evolution. Further, we introduce the inclusive worker norm to juxtapose against the ideal worker norm. We demonstrate the inclusion of these diverse aspects at the occupational level, employing multi‐level factor analyses to evaluate supply‐ and demand‐side data for Switzerland, from 2001 to 2023. The validity of our indicators is supported by (1) factor analysis fit measures, (2) positive correlation with established indicators and part‐time and gender pay gaps, and (3) negative associations with preferences for part‐time work as estimated by multi‐level models. By adopting this nuanced, occupation‐specific, and historical lens, and leveraging job advert data, our research provides a novel approach to better analyze, understand, and address gender inequalities, and other work outcomes, perpetuated or mitigated by (shifts in) the ideal worker and inclusive worker norms.

Date: 2026
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