The Bayesian context trees state space model for time series modelling and forecasting

Ioannis Papageorgiou and Ioannis Kontoyiannis

International Journal of Forecasting, 2026, vol. 42, issue 2, 474-491

Abstract: A hierarchical Bayesian framework is introduced for developing tree-based mixture models for time series, motivated in part by applications in finance and forecasting. At the top level, meaningful discrete states are identified as appropriately quantised values of some of the most recent samples. At the bottom level, a different, arbitrary ‘base’ model is associated with each state. This defines a very general framework that can be used in conjunction with any existing model class to build flexible and interpretable mixture models. We refer to this as the Bayesian Context Trees State Space Model, also known as the BCT-X framework. Appropriate algorithmic tools are described, which allow for effective and efficient Bayesian inference and learning; these algorithms can be updated sequentially, facilitating online forecasting. The utility of the general framework is illustrated in specific instances where AR or ARCH models serve as the base models. The latter results in a mixture model that offers a powerful way of modelling the well-known volatility asymmetries in financial data, revealing a novel, important feature of stock market index data, in the form of an enhanced leverage effect. In forecasting, the BCT-X methods are found to outperform several state-of-the-art techniques, both in terms of accuracy and computational requirements.

Keywords: Time series; Interpretable mixture models; Bayesian inference; Context-tree models; Forecasting; AR models; Conditional heteroscedastic models; Volatility asymmetries (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2026
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Persistent link: https://EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc:eee:intfor:v:42:y:2026:i:2:p:474-491

DOI: 10.1016/j.ijforecast.2025.07.009

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