Female circumcision in Southern Kurdistan: Testing bargaining with the patriarchy

Sinem Esengen

Social Science & Medicine, 2025, vol. 381, issue C

Abstract: Female circumcision (FC), the practice of removal, cutting, or stitching of parts of female genitalia, is closely associated with systems of gender inequality and gendered family norms. Although advocacy and policymaking on FC have historically been tied to the feminist movement and perspectives, feminist theories are undertested for understanding factors associated with FC. I apply Kandiyoti's (1988) theory of ‘patriarchal bargaining’ to understand factors related to the prevalence of FC in an understudied area, Southern Kurdistan. According to Kandiyoti (1988), under the norms of ‘classic patriarchy,’ women may resist the norms within their household rather than resisting them publicly. Thus, women may resist FC norms by increasing their bargaining potential in the household without resorting to outside opportunities. I employ a multilevel model using the 2011 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey for Iraq. Results suggest that women in relationships where they may secure some bargaining power (operationalized based on spousal age, marital characteristics, and IPV attitudes) are less likely to carry on circumcising norms. This study contributes to the literature by highlighting the prevalence of FC in Southern Kurdistan and showing the need to specify feminist theories to understand FC.

Keywords: Female circumcision; Female genital modifications; Patriarchal bargaining; Resistance; Middle east; Iraqi Kurdistan (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.118288

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