Economic Policy Uncertainty and Foreign Direct Investment: A Bilateral Perspective on Push and Consistency Effects

Liqiang Dong, Mohamad Helmi Bin Hidthiir, Mustazar Bin Mansur () and Nafisah Mohammed
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Liqiang Dong: Faculty of Economics and Management (FEP), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Malaysia
Mohamad Helmi Bin Hidthiir: School of Economics, Finance and Banking, Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM), Sintok 06010, Malaysia
Mustazar Bin Mansur: Faculty of Economics and Management (FEP), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Malaysia
Nafisah Mohammed: Faculty of Economics and Management (FEP), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Malaysia

Economies, 2025, vol. 13, issue 9, 1-32

Abstract: Against the backdrop of unprecedented global FDI volatility—with flows declining 34.7% in 2020 and a further 12% in 2022—and China experiencing its first sustained capital outflow since reform, with foreign enterprises withdrawing over USD 160 billion in the first three quarters of 2023, understanding the complex mechanisms through which EPU affects international investment has become critically important. Existing research predominantly examines unilateral EPU effects while neglecting the bilateral dynamics that characterize modern interconnected economies, creating a significant gap in explaining recent FDI pattern shifts. This study systematically examines the differential impact mechanisms of EPU on China’s FDI inflows using panel data from 20 countries spanning 2005–2023, employing FE models and GMM methods. The research reveals that policy uncertainty affects international investment through two mechanisms: first, a “push effect” whereby relatively higher EPU in home countries drives FDI flows to China ( β = 0.002, p < 0.001); second, a “consistency effect” where differences in policy environments between home countries and China impede FDI flows ( β = −0.004, p < 0.001), with the latter effect being stronger. Moderating effects analysis demonstrates that institutional quality and bilateral political relations exert complex non-linear moderating effects on the EPU–FDI relationship. Heterogeneity tests reveal that when China’s EPU is relatively low, the negative impact of policy uncertainty is significantly weakened. This study extends real options theory and provides empirical evidence for the dual mechanisms of the EPU–FDI relationship, emphasizing that policy coordination is more important than relative policy advantages for international investment decisions. The findings provide theoretical foundations and practical guidance for policymakers to optimize international investment environments and strengthen policy coordination.

Keywords: economic policy uncertainty; foreign direct investment; push effect; consistency effect; institutional quality; fixed effect model; GMM model (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: E F I J O Q (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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