Multi-Criteria Decision-Making of Hybrid Energy Infrastructure for Fuel Cell and Battery Electric Buses

Zhetao Chen, Hao Wang (), Warren J. Barry and Marc J. Tuozzolo
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Zhetao Chen: Department of Industrial Engineering, School of Engineering, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08854, USA
Hao Wang: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08854, USA
Warren J. Barry: Capital Planning and Programs, New Jersey Transit, Newark, NJ 07105, USA
Marc J. Tuozzolo: Capital Planning and Programs, New Jersey Transit, Newark, NJ 07105, USA

Energies, 2025, vol. 18, issue 11, 1-23

Abstract: This study evaluates four hybrid infrastructure scenarios for supporting battery electric buses (BEBs) and fuel cell electric buses (FCEBs), analyzing different combinations of grid power, solar energy, battery storage, and fuel cell systems. A multi-stage framework—comprising energy demand forecasting, infrastructure capacity planning, and multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) evaluation incorporating total cost of ownership (TCO), carbon emissions, and energy resilience—was developed and applied to a real-world transit depot. The results highlight critical trade-offs between financial, environmental, and operational objectives. The limited rooftop solar configuration, integrating solar energy through a Solar Power Purchase Agreement (SPPA), emerges as the most cost-effective near-term solution. Offsite solar with onsite large-scale battery storage and offsite solar with fuel cell integration achieve greater sustainability and resilience, but they face substantial cost barriers. The analysis underscores the importance of balancing investment, emissions reduction, and resilience in planning zero-emission bus fleets.

Keywords: hybrid charging stations; battery electric bus (BEB); fuel cell electric bus (FCEB); total cost of ownership (TCO); energy resilience; multiple-criteria decision-making (MCDM) (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: Q Q0 Q4 Q40 Q41 Q42 Q43 Q47 Q48 Q49 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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