Human Toxicity Potential: A Lifecycle Evaluation in Current and Future Frameworks for Hydrogen-Based and Battery Electric Buses in the European Union

Andrea Nicolò Damiani Ferretti, Pier Paolo Brancaleoni, Francesco Bellucci, Alessandro Brusa and Enrico Corti ()
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Andrea Nicolò Damiani Ferretti: DIN—Department of Industrial Engineering, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
Pier Paolo Brancaleoni: DIN—Department of Industrial Engineering, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
Francesco Bellucci: DIN—Department of Industrial Engineering, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
Alessandro Brusa: DIN—Department of Industrial Engineering, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
Enrico Corti: DIN—Department of Industrial Engineering, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy

Energies, 2025, vol. 18, issue 18, 1-30

Abstract: In recent years, governments have promoted the shift to low-emission transport systems, with electric and hydrogen vehicles emerging as key alternatives for greener urban mobility. Evaluating zero- or near-zero tailpipe solutions requires a Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) approach, accounting for emissions from energy production, components and vehicle manufacturing. Such studies mainly address Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions, while other pollutants are often overlooked. This study compares the Human Toxicity Potential (HTP) of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs), Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (H2ICEVs) and hybrid H2ICEVs for public transport in the European Union. Current and future scenarios (2024, 2030, 2050) are examined, considering evolving energy mixes and manufacturing impacts. Results underline that BEVs are characterized by the highest HTP in 2024, and that this trend is maintained even in future scenarios. As for hydrogen-based powertrains, they show lower HTPs, similar among them. This work underlines that current efforts must be intensified, especially for BEVs, to further limit harmful emissions from the mobility sector.

Keywords: equivalent life non-greenhouse gas emissions; hydrogen mobility; electric vehicles; European Union; sustainability (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: Q Q0 Q4 Q40 Q41 Q42 Q43 Q47 Q48 Q49 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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