User Comfort Evaluation in a Nearly Zero-Energy Housing Complex in Poland: Indoor and Outdoor Analysis

Małgorzata Fedorczak-Cisak, Elżbieta Radziszewska-Zielina (), Mirosław Dechnik (), Aleksandra Buda-Chowaniec, Beata Sadowska, Michał Ciuła and Tomasz Kapecki
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Małgorzata Fedorczak-Cisak: Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland
Elżbieta Radziszewska-Zielina: Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland
Mirosław Dechnik: Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland
Aleksandra Buda-Chowaniec: Faculty of Civil Engineering, CUT Doctoral School, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland
Beata Sadowska: Faculty of Civil Engineering and Environmental Sciences, Bialystok University of Technology, Wiejska Street 45E, 15-351 Bialystok, Poland
Michał Ciuła: Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland
Tomasz Kapecki: Faculty of Architecture, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland

Energies, 2025, vol. 18, issue 19, 1-24

Abstract: The building sector plays a key role in the transition toward climate neutrality, with national regulations across the EU requiring the construction of nearly zero-energy buildings (nZEBs). However, while energy performance has been extensively studied, less attention has been given to the problem of ensuring user comfort—both indoors and in the surrounding outdoor areas—under nZEB design constraints. This gap raises two key research objectives: (1) to evaluate whether a well-designed nZEB with extensive glazing maintains acceptable indoor thermal comfort and (2) to assess whether residents experience greater outdoor thermal comfort and satisfaction in small, sun-exposed private gardens or in larger, shaded communal green spaces. To address these objectives, a newly built residential estate near Kraków (Poland) was analyzed. The investigation included simulation-based assessments during the design phase and in situ measurements during building operation, complemented by a user survey on spatial preferences. Indoor comfort was evaluated for rooms with large glazed façades, as well as rooms with standard-sized windows, while outdoor comfort was assessed in both private gardens and a shared green courtyard. Results show that shading the southwest-oriented glazed façade with an overhanging terrace provided slightly lower temperatures in ground-floor rooms compared to rooms with standard unshaded windows. Outdoors, users experienced lower thermal comfort in small, unshaded gardens than in the larger, vegetated communal area (pocket park), which demonstrated greater capacity for temperature moderation and thermal stress reduction. Survey responses further indicate that potential future residents prefer the inclusion of a shared green–blue infrastructure area, even at the expense of building some housing units in semi-detached form, instead of maximizing the number of detached units with unshaded individual gardens. These findings emphasize the importance of addressing both indoor and outdoor comfort in residential nZEB design, showing that technological efficiency must be complemented by user-centered design strategies. This integrated approach can improve the well-being of residents while supporting climate change adaptation in the built environment.

Keywords: nearly zero-energy buildings (nZEBs); thermal comfort; outdoor comfort; glazed façades; pocket park; human-centered design; residential settlements; climate-resilient urban design (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: Q Q0 Q4 Q40 Q41 Q42 Q43 Q47 Q48 Q49 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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