Lightweight Anomaly Detection in Digit Recognition Using Federated Learning

Anja Tanović and Ivan Mezei ()
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Anja Tanović: Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
Ivan Mezei: Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia

Future Internet, 2025, vol. 17, issue 8, 1-34

Abstract: This study presents a lightweight autoencoder-based approach for anomaly detection in digit recognition using federated learning on resource-constrained embedded devices. We implement and evaluate compact autoencoder models on the ESP32-CAM microcontroller, enabling both training and inference directly on the device using 32-bit floating-point arithmetic. The system is trained on a reduced MNIST dataset (1000 resized samples) and evaluated using EMNIST and MNIST-C for anomaly detection. Seven fully connected autoencoder architectures are first evaluated on a PC to explore the impact of model size and batch size on training time and anomaly detection performance. Selected models are then re-implemented in the C programming language and deployed on a single ESP32 device, achieving training times as short as 12 min, inference latency as low as 9 ms, and F1 scores of up to 0.87. Autoencoders are further tested on ten devices in a real-world federated learning experiment using Wi-Fi. We explore non-IID and IID data distribution scenarios: (1) digit-specialized devices and (2) partitioned datasets with varying content and anomaly types. The results show that small unmodified autoencoder models can be effectively trained and evaluated directly on low-power hardware. The best models achieve F1 scores of up to 0.87 in the standard IID setting and 0.86 in the extreme non-IID setting. Despite some clients being trained on corrupted datasets, federated aggregation proves resilient, maintaining high overall performance. The resource analysis shows that more than half of the models and all the training-related allocations fit entirely in internal RAM. These findings confirm the feasibility of local float32 training and collaborative anomaly detection on low-cost hardware, supporting scalable and privacy-preserving edge intelligence.

Keywords: anomaly detection; TinyML; autoencoder; federated learning; TinyFL (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: O3 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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