Effect of Inter-Observer Variation on the Association between Contamination Hazards and the Microbiological Quality of Water Sources: A Longitudinal Study

Joseph Okotto-Okotto, Diogo Trajano Gomes da Silva, Emmah Kwoba, Samuel.M Thumbi, Peggy Wanza, Weiyu Yu and Jim A. Wright
Additional contact information
Joseph Okotto-Okotto: Victoria Institute for Research on Environment and Development (VIRED) International, P.O. Box 6423-40103, off Nairobi Road, Rabour, Kisumu, Kenya
Diogo Trajano Gomes da Silva: School of Environment and Technology, University of Brighton, Cockcroft Building, Lewes Road, Brighton BN2 4GJ, UK
Emmah Kwoba: International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 30709-00100, Naivasha Road, Nairobi, Kenya
Samuel.M Thumbi: Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, P.O. Box 1578-40100, Kisumu, Kenya
Peggy Wanza: Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, P.O. Box 1578-40100, Kisumu, Kenya
Weiyu Yu: School of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Southampton, Building 44, Highfield, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK
Jim A. Wright: School of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Southampton, Building 44, Highfield, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK

IJERPH, 2020, vol. 17, issue 24, 1-15

Abstract: Sanitary risk inspection protocols are often used to identify contamination hazards at water sources; however, different observers sometimes struggle to record hazards consistently. This study aimed to assess the effect of inter-observer variation in hazard observations on the strength of relationships between observed hazards and the bacterial contamination of water sources, particularly relationships with animal-related hazards. In a longitudinal study, five surveyors independently recorded hazards at 93 water sources used by 234 households in Siaya County, Kenya, in both wet and dry seasons. One surveyor collected samples from sources for subsequent Escherichia coli and intestinal enterococci testing. The relationship between each surveyor’s hazard observations and high bacterial contamination was examined using logistic regression. After controlling for water source type and preceding rainfall; percentage scores for animal-related hazards were significantly related to high contamination with enterococci and E. coli for one surveyor (odds ratio 1.02; 95% confidence intervals 1.00–1.03 for both parameters), but not for the remaining four surveyors. The relationship between observed contamination hazards and the microbiological contamination of water sources is sensitive to variation in hazard recording between surveyors. Sanitary risk protocols should be designed to enable robust and consistent observation of hazards.

Keywords: Escherichia coli; enterococcus; water supply; water pollution; cattle; Kenya (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: I I1 I3 Q Q5 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2020
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