Potentially Harmful Elements Associated with Dust of Mosques: Pollution Status, Sources, and Human Health Risks

Bassam Tawabini, Mubarak Al-Enazi, Mansour A. Alghamdi, Ashraf Farahat (), Ahsan M. Shemsi, Marwan Y. Al Sharif and Mamdouh I. Khoder
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Bassam Tawabini: Department of Geosciences, College of Petroleum Engineering & Geosciences, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
Mubarak Al-Enazi: Department of Geosciences, College of Petroleum Engineering & Geosciences, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
Mansour A. Alghamdi: Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Meteorology, Environment and Arid Land Agriculture, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80208, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
Ashraf Farahat: Department of Physics, College of Engineering and Physics, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
Ahsan M. Shemsi: Environmental Chemistry and Analytical Laboratories Section, Center for Environment and Marine Studies, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
Marwan Y. Al Sharif: Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Meteorology, Environment and Arid Land Agriculture, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80208, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
Mamdouh I. Khoder: Air Pollution Research Department, Environment and Climate Change Research Institute, National Research Centre, El Behooth Str., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt

IJERPH, 2023, vol. 20, issue 3, 1-30

Abstract: Potentially harmful elements (PHEs) associated with dust generated from anthropogenic sources can be transported into mosques and deposited on the filters of the air-conditioners (AC); thereby, children and adults are exposed to such PHEs while visiting mosques. Data dealing with the assessment of PHEs pollution and its human health risk in mosques dust in Saudi Arabia are scarce. Therefore, this work aims to examine the levels and pollution status of PHEs in AC filter dust (ACFD) of mosques and their associated human health risk in three Saudi cities: Jubail, Jeddah, and Dammam metropolitan. A similar concentration pattern of PHEs is observed in three cities’ mosques with noticeably higher concentrations than both global crustal and local background values for Zn, Cu, Pb, As, and Cd only. Except for Fe, Al, and Mn, the highest PHEs concentrations were found in Jeddah (1407 mg/kg), followed by Dammam (1239 mg/kg) and Jubail (1103 mg/kg). High PHEs’ concentrations were also recorded in mosques located near workshops and suburban areas compared to urban areas. Based on the spatial pattern, enrichment factor, geo-accumulation index, pollution load index, and ecological risk values, Jubail, Jeddah, and Dammam have shown moderate pollution levels of Cd, As, Pb, and Zn. On the other hand, Cu. Zn, Cu, Cr, Pb, Ni, As, and Cd had degrees of enrichment levels that varied from significantly enriched to extremely highly enriched in the ACFD of the three cities. Heavy pollution is found in Jubail, which posed a higher potential ecological risk than in Jeddah and Dammam. Cd presents the highest ecological risk factors (ER) in the three cities. Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks for children and adults follow the order: Jeddah > Dammam > Jubail, and the ingestion pathway was the main route for exposure. Carcinogenic and con-carcinogenic risks in the mosques of the various studied cities were generally within the acceptable range.

Keywords: trace elements; particulate matter; AC filters; mosques; Saudi Arabia (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: I I1 I3 Q Q5 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2023
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