Impact of COVID-19 on Mental Health: Sociodemographic Differences and the Moderating Effect of Religiosity

Ivica Fotez, Zudi Osmani, Aleksandar Vcev, Lara Fotez, Darko Kotromanovic, Lucija Fotez, Mate Car, Gordana Horvat, Ivan Miskulin () and Maja Miskulin
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Ivica Fotez: Faculty of Dental Medicine and Health Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
Zudi Osmani: Faculty of Health Studies, University “VITEZ”, 72 270 Travnik, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Aleksandar Vcev: Faculty of Dental Medicine and Health Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
Lara Fotez: Health Centre Zagreb East, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
Darko Kotromanovic: Faculty of Medicine Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
Lucija Fotez: Institute for Emergency Medicine of Krapina-Zagorje County, 49000 Krapina, Croatia
Mate Car: Center for Data-Driven Policy and Management, Catholic University of Croatia, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
Gordana Horvat: Faculty of Law in Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
Ivan Miskulin: Faculty of Medicine Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
Maja Miskulin: Faculty of Medicine Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia

IJERPH, 2025, vol. 22, issue 10, 1-14

Abstract: Background and Objectives: This research aimed to examine the impact of sociodemographic characteristics on mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic, with religiosity as a moderator. Materials and Methods: The cross-sectional study was conducted in family medicine clinics within the Primary Healthcare Center of Virovitica-Podravina County among 1131 participants, divided into 2 groups: RC (Recovered from COVID-19; N = 423) and NRC (Not Recovered from COVID-19; N = 708). To ensure clear differentiation, RC participants were defined as individuals with documented positive PCR results for SARS-CoV-2 (prior infection and clinical recovery), whereas NRC participants exhibited consistently negative PCR results and lacked any clinical history of the disease. Group allocation was rigorously based on the review of medical records and corresponding PCR documentation obtained both at the time of recruitment and retrospectively. All data were collected through a questionnaire from September 2022 to September 2023. Participants completed questionnaires measuring their sociodemographic characteristics (gender, age, education, and marital status), levels of depression, anxiety, stress, and level of religiosity. Results: Older participants were more prone to depression, whereas younger participants showed relatively better mental-health indicators. Sociodemographic characteristics were significantly associated with mental health during the pandemic. Religiosity was found to be a significant moderator in the relationship between sociodemographic characteristics and mental health. Individuals with higher levels of religiosity reported higher levels of depression and anxiety, suggesting that religiosity may act as a negative factor in times of crisis. Conclusions: Sociodemographic characteristics were significant predictors of mental health during the pandemic. Religiosity emerged as an important factor, particularly in moderating the relationship between sociodemographic characteristics and mental health. Further research is recommended to develop targeted interventions for vulnerable groups such as women, younger individuals, and those with lower incomes.

Keywords: COVID-19 pandemic; mental health; sociodemographic factors; religiosity; survey (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: I I1 I3 Q Q5 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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