Exploring Male Body Image: A Scoping Review of Measurement Approaches and Mental Health Implications

Emily Pomichter, Antonio Cepeda-Benito (), Shahrzad Ahmadkaraji and John P. DePalma
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Emily Pomichter: Department of Psychological Science, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA
Antonio Cepeda-Benito: Department of Psychological Science, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA
Shahrzad Ahmadkaraji: Department of Psychological Science, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA
John P. DePalma: Department of Psychological Science, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA

IJERPH, 2025, vol. 22, issue 6, 1-17

Abstract: Background: Body image (BI) concerns in men—spanning thinness, muscularity, and other related constructs—are increasingly being recognized for their links to depression, anxiety, and self-esteem, yet measurement approaches remain unevenly aligned. Objectives: Our objective was to map the landscape of BI instruments deployed with cisgender men and women and to examine whether thinness-, muscularity-, and non-specific self-image satisfaction measures differentially relate to key mental health outcomes. Eligibility Criteria: Our eligibility criteria were peer-reviewed, quantitative studies published in English between January 2011 and December 2021. We only included studies with samples ≥30 cisgender men, psychometrically validated BI scales, results reported separately by gender, and U.S.-based investigations. Sources of Evidence: The source of evidence was a systematic search of PsycINFO. Charting Methods: Two reviewers double-screened titles/abstracts and full texts in EPPI-Reviewer. Data on measure orientation; validation sample characteristics; and effect sizes relating BI scores to depression, anxiety, and self-esteem were extracted. The effect sizes were transformed to r and averaged across the studies. Results: Of the 1178 records identified, 191 U.S. studies met the inclusion criteria. Fifty-five distinct BI instruments were used; twelve appeared in six or more studies and were classified as thinness-oriented, muscularity-oriented, or non-specific. The unweighted average correlations with depression ranged from r = 0.23 (muscularity) to 0.34 (non-specific), with anxiety at r = 0.16–0.25 and self-esteem at r = 0.20–0.57. The male samples showed greater heterogeneity of effect sizes, likely reflecting the sampling variability and the multifaceted nature of men’s BI concerns. Conclusions: This review confirms critical gaps in male BI measurement and interpretation. Although thinness- and muscularity-oriented scales each capture facets of men’s BI, exclusive reliance on thinness measures risks overlooking leanness- and musculature-focused pathology. The greater variability of BI–mental health associations in men than women underscore the need for a diverse measurement toolkit that, at minimum, assesses thinness, muscularity, and other appearance-related constructs.

Keywords: body image (BI); male body image; muscularity-oriented measures; thinness-oriented measures; mental health outcomes (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: I I1 I3 Q Q5 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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