Thallium Exposure Secondary to Commercial Kale Chip Consumption: California Case Highlights Opportunities for Improved Surveillance and Toxicological Understanding

Asha Choudhury (), Jefferson Fowles, Russell Bartlett, Mark D. Miller, Timur Durrani, Robert Harrison and Tracy Barreau
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Asha Choudhury: California Department of Public Health, Environmental Health Investigations Branch, Richmond, CA 94804, USA
Jefferson Fowles: California Department of Public Health, Environmental Health Investigations Branch, Richmond, CA 94804, USA
Russell Bartlett: California Department of Public Health, Environmental Health Investigations Branch, Richmond, CA 94804, USA
Mark D. Miller: Western States Pediatric Environmental Health Specialty Unit, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Timur Durrani: Western States Pediatric Environmental Health Specialty Unit, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
Robert Harrison: California Department of Public Health, Occupational Health Branch, Richmond, CA 94804, USA
Tracy Barreau: California Department of Public Health, Environmental Health Investigations Branch, Richmond, CA 94804, USA

IJERPH, 2025, vol. 22, issue 8, 1-14

Abstract: Background: Thallium is a metal that is ubiquitous in our natural environment. Despite its potential for high toxicity, thallium is understudied and not regulated in food. The California Department of Public Health was alerted to a household cluster of elevated urine thallium levels noted among a mother (peak 5.6 µg/g creatinine; adult reference: ≤0.4 µg/g creatinine) and her three young children (peak 10.5 µg/g creatinine; child reference: ≤0.8 µg/g creatinine). Objectives: This case report identifies questions raised after a public health investigation linked a household’s thallium exposure to a commercially available food product. We provide an overview of the public health investigation. We then explore concerns, such as gaps in toxicological data and limited surveillance of thallium in the food supply, which make management of individual and population exposure risks challenging. Methods: We highlight findings from a cross-agency investigation, including a household exposure survey, sampling of possible environmental and dietary exposures (ICP-MS analysis measured thallium in kale chips at 1.98 mg/kg and 2.15 mg/kg), and monitoring of symptoms and urine thallium levels after the source was removed. We use regulatory and research findings to describe the challenges and opportunities in characterizing the scale of thallium in our food supply and effects of dietary exposures on health. Discussion: Thallium can bioaccumulate in our food system, particularly in brassica vegetables like kale. Thallium concentration in foods can also be affected by manufacturing processes, such as dehydration. We have limited surveillance data nationally regarding this metal in our food supply. Dietary reviews internationally show increased thallium intake in toddlers. Limited information is available about low-dose or chronic exposures, particularly among children, although emerging evidence shows that there might be risks associated at lower levels than previously thought. Improved toxicological studies are needed to guide reference doses and food safety standards. Promising action towards enhanced monitoring of thallium is being pursued by food safety agencies internationally, and research is underway to deepen our understanding of thallium toxicity.

Keywords: thallium; food safety; emerging contaminant; human health (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: I I1 I3 Q Q5 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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