Life Cycle Cost and Environmental Performance of Electric and Gasoline Vehicles in Cold Climate and Coal-Dependent Regions: A Case Study of Heilongjiang Province, China

Sining Ma (), Amir Hamzah Sharaai, Zhijian He, Nitanan Koshy Matthew and Nazatul Syadia Zainordin
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Sining Ma: Department of Environmental Management, Faculty of Forestry and Environment, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia
Amir Hamzah Sharaai: Department of Environmental Management, Faculty of Forestry and Environment, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia
Zhijian He: School of Business and Economics, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia
Nitanan Koshy Matthew: Department of Environmental Management, Faculty of Forestry and Environment, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia
Nazatul Syadia Zainordin: Department of Environmental Management, Faculty of Forestry and Environment, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia

Sustainability, 2025, vol. 17, issue 10, 1-32

Abstract: This study conducts a comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle cost (LCC) analysis of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and gasoline vehicles (GVs) in Heilongjiang Province, China, under cold climate conditions and a coal dominated electricity grid. Environmental impacts were assessed using SimaPro with the ReCiPe 2016 Midpoint (H) method, while cost performance was evaluated over 5-, 10-, and 15-year ownership periods. Results show that BEVs offer lower total ownership costs than GVs, even without subsidies, primarily due to reduced energy and maintenance expenses. In terms of global warming potential, BEVs show a 4.52% reduction compared to GVs. However, BEVs demonstrate higher impacts in several non-climate categories—including ionizing radiation, particulate matter formation, eutrophication, toxicity, and water use—largely due to emissions from coal-based electricity. The derived grid emission factor of 1.498 kg CO 2 /kWh underscores the critical role of regional energy structure. These findings suggest that while BEVs provide economic and climate benefits, their overall environmental performance is highly dependent on local grid carbon intensity and seasonal energy demand. Policy recommendations include accelerating grid decarbonization, improving cold weather efficiency, and incorporating multidimensional environmental indicators into transport planning.

Keywords: battery electric vehicle (BEV); gasoline vehicle (GV); life cycle assessment (LCA); life cycle cost (LCC); northeast China grid (NECG); cold climate; carbon emissions; sustainability policy (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: O13 Q Q0 Q2 Q3 Q5 Q56 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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