Evaluating the Environmental Impacts and Social Risks of Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC 3 ) Mortars

Pamela Haverkamp (), Marzia Traverso, Ameer Hamza Ahmed, Marco Liebscher and Viktor Mechtcherine
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Pamela Haverkamp: Institute of Sustainability in Civil Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany
Marzia Traverso: Institute of Sustainability in Civil Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany
Ameer Hamza Ahmed: Institute of Construction Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, 01187 Dresden, Germany
Marco Liebscher: Institute of Construction Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, 01187 Dresden, Germany
Viktor Mechtcherine: Institute of Construction Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, 01187 Dresden, Germany

Sustainability, 2025, vol. 17, issue 18, 1-31

Abstract: Cement production significantly contributes to global CO 2 emissions. Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC 3 )—a mixture of limestone, calcined clay, cement clinker, and gypsum—offers a promising alternative by significantly reducing clinker contents without compromising mechanical performance. This study assesses the environmental and social hotspots of various LC 3 mortars produced in Germany, a context not yet explored in previous research. While prior studies have mostly focused on LC 3 in concrete applications and in low- to middle-income countries, this is the first to evaluate LC 3 -based mortar in a high-income, highly industrialized context using both Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Social Risk Assessment (SRA) to determine the main environmental and social drivers of this material. The LCA revealed that LC 3 mixtures achieve substantial reductions in key impact categories compared to conventional Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) mixes, including Climate Change (up to 42.6% reduction) and Particulate Matter (up to 15.8% reduction). The SRA highlights significant social risks related to corruption, fair competition, and workers’ rights, including fair wages, discrimination, and safe working conditions. This study underscores LC 3 as a promising sustainable solution in cement applications while emphasizing the importance of region-specific assessments to address unique environmental and social considerations.

Keywords: limestone calcined clay cement (LC 3 ); supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs); life cycle assessment (LCA); social risk assessment (SRA); low-clinker mortars (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: O13 Q Q0 Q2 Q3 Q5 Q56 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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