Multi-Objective Optimization of Window Design for Energy and Thermal Comfort in School Buildings: A Sustainable Approach for Hot-Humid Climates

Tian Xia, Azlan Shah Ali () and Norhayati Mahyuddin ()
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Tian Xia: Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
Azlan Shah Ali: Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
Norhayati Mahyuddin: Centre for Building, Construction & Tropical Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia

Sustainability, 2025, vol. 17, issue 19, 1-34

Abstract: School buildings in hot-humid climates encounter considerable difficulties in balancing energy use and thermal comfort due to this environment, necessitating optimized design strategies to reduce energy consumption while enhancing occupant comfort. This study presents sustainable design strategies for educational structures in hot-humid regions, aiming to optimize energy efficiency and thermal comfort for environmental preservation and occupant welfare. The present work introduces a multi-objective optimization framework for window design in school buildings situated in hot-humid climates, targeting a balance between Energy Use Intensity (EUI) and Thermal Comfort Time Ratio (TCTR). Exploring multi-objective optimization through NSGA-II genetic algorithms, the study conducts Sobol sensitivity analysis for parameter assessment and applies Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) for effective model validation, identifying optimal window configurations that reduce energy consumption while enhancing thermal comfort. It finds that the Window-to-Wall Ratio (WWR) and Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC) are the most significant factors, with WWR and SHGC accounting for 28.1% and 23.7% of the variance in EUI and TCTR, respectively. The results reveal a non-linear trade-off between the objectives, with the Balanced Solution offering a practical compromise: a 6.7% decrease in energy use and a 14.3% enhancement in thermal comfort. The study examined various ranges of window parameters, including WWR (0.1–0.50), SC (0.20–0.80), K (1.0–2.5 W·m −2 ·K −1 ), SHGC (0.1–0.4), Shading width (0.3–2.0 m), and Shading angle (0°–90°). The recommended compromise, known as the Balanced Solution, suggests optimal values as follows: WWR = 0.40, SC = 0.30, SHGC = 0.40, K = 1.2 W·m −2 ·K −1 , Shading width = 1.22 m, and Shading angle = 28°. The GPR model exhibited high predictive precision, with R 2 values of 0.91 for EUI and 0.95 for TCTR, underscoring the framework’s effectiveness. This research offers actionable insights for designing energy-efficient and comfortable school buildings in hot-humid climates, enriching sustainable architectural design knowledge.

Keywords: multi-objective optimization; window design; sustainable building design; energy efficiency; thermal comfort; hot-humid climate; GPR; sensitivity analysis (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: O13 Q Q0 Q2 Q3 Q5 Q56 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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