Environmental and Human Health Risks of Estrogenic Compounds: A Critical Review of Sustainable Management Practices

Nisha Lerdsuwanrut, Reza Zamani and Mohammad Akrami ()
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Nisha Lerdsuwanrut: Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, 1845 N Soto Street, Room 225E, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
Reza Zamani: Medical School, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX1 2LU, UK
Mohammad Akrami: Department of Engineering, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QF, UK

Sustainability, 2025, vol. 17, issue 2, 1-30

Abstract: The concentrations of estrogens and xenoestrogens in the environment are rising rapidly, posing significant and multifaceted risks to human health and ecosystems. It is imperative for governments to develop policies that leverage sustainable technologies to mitigate the presence of pharmaceutical estrogenic compounds in the environment. This review examines the global environmental and human health risks associated with indigenous estrogens and synthetic pharmaceutical xenoestrogens, while critically evaluating sustainable approaches to their management. A total of 28 studies, published between December 2013 and 18 January 2024, and sourced from PubMed and Scopus, were systematically reviewed. Most of these studies focused on estrogenic compounds in aquatic environments where they contribute to reproductive and developmental abnormalities in fish and may enter the human food chain, primarily through fish consumption. Sustainable methods for removing or neutralizing estrogenic compounds include adsorption, filtration, and enzymatic degradation. Additionally, technologies such as activated sludge processes and high-rate algal ponds demonstrate promise for large-scale applications; however, further research and standardized operational guidelines are needed to optimize their efficiency and sustainability. This review has concluded that ECs can have severe consequences on the environment, most notably, impairment of reproductive functions in fish and humans, underscoring the urgent need for governments to implement drug take-back programs, establish evidence-based guidelines for wastewater and pharmaceutical waste treatment, and set enforceable thresholds for estrogenic compounds in surface and drinking water. Existing regulations such as the UK’s Regulation on the registration, evaluation, authorization, and restriction of chemicals and the United States’ National Primary Drinking Water Regulations can be modified to include ECs as dangerous chemicals to aid in maintaining safe EC levels”. Such measures are critical for reducing the environmental concentrations of pharmaceutical estrogenic compounds and safeguarding both public health and ecological integrity.

Keywords: estrogens; xenoestrogens; human health; sustainable waste management; environment; pharmaceuticals (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: O13 Q Q0 Q2 Q3 Q5 Q56 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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