Hematophagous Tick Control in the South African Cattle Production System by Using Fossil Shell Flour as a Sustainable Solution: A Systematic Review

Zimkhitha Soji-Mbongo, Olusegun O. Ikusika () and Thando C. Mpendulo ()
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Zimkhitha Soji-Mbongo: Department of Livestock and Pasture Science, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, South Africa
Olusegun O. Ikusika: Department of Livestock and Pasture Science, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, South Africa
Thando C. Mpendulo: Department of Livestock and Pasture Science, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, South Africa

Sustainability, 2025, vol. 17, issue 7, 1-14

Abstract: Ticks pose one of the key economic risks to the cattle industry globally, affecting productivity, health, and welfare. Over 80% of the cattle population around the globe is affected by tick infestation. Several tick control methods, including the use of chemical acaricides, herbal agents, and some complementary measures, like the use of old motor oil, disinfectant, pour-on, tick grease, pulling off, cutting, paraffin, and Jeyes fluid, have been used by farmers to alleviate the effects of hematophagous ticks. However, these strategies are often mistakenly employed and can harm animals. Likewise, these methods cannot be sustained because of their cost, environmental impact, flaws, and resistance. An abundantly available, cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and naturally occurring substance like fossil shell flour with no known side effects could present a sustainable solution. This review abridged the research and information on hematophagous tick control in South African cattle production using fossil shell flour. This is a systematic review of the published literature and catalogues. All available documented evidence on this topic was collated and synthesized through standardized methods of systematic review protocol. Different scientific studies and a few references from farmers’ magazines published from 1941 to 2022 were reviewed. Out of 120 research papers downloaded, 98 were included and analyzed directly or indirectly regarding hematophagous tick control in cattle production and the use of fossil shell flour among livestock farmers. The advancement in ectoparasite control through fossil shell flour is a novel concept that needs to be explored for the benefit of all livestock farmers, hence this review. Fossil shell flour has been shown to have good insecticidal effectiveness against insects of animal and agricultural importance. We hereby recommend the exploration of FSF as an alternative tick control measure to the currently used acaricides to which ticks have developed resistance.

Keywords: acaricide resistance; ectoparasites; fossil shell flour; heat stress; tick infestation (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: O13 Q Q0 Q2 Q3 Q5 Q56 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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