Best practices for in-situ and operando techniques within electrocatalytic systems

Aditya Prajapati, Christopher Hahn (), Inez M. Weidinger (), Yanmei Shi (), Yonghyuk Lee, Anastassia N. Alexandrova (), David Thompson, Simon R. Bare (), Shuai Chen, Shuai Yan and Nikolay Kornienko ()
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Aditya Prajapati: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Christopher Hahn: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Inez M. Weidinger: Technische Universität Dresden
Yanmei Shi: Tianjin University
Yonghyuk Lee: Los Angeles
Anastassia N. Alexandrova: Los Angeles
David Thompson: SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
Simon R. Bare: SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
Shuai Chen: University of Bonn
Shuai Yan: University of Bonn
Nikolay Kornienko: University of Bonn

Nature Communications, 2025, vol. 16, issue 1, 1-20

Abstract: Abstract In-situ and operando techniques in heterogeneous electrocatalysis are a powerful tool used to elucidate reaction mechanisms. Ultimately, they are key in determining concrete links between a catalyst’s physical/electronic structure and its activity en route to designing next-generation systems. To this end, the exact execution and interpretation of these lines of experiments is critical as this determines the strength of conclusions that can be drawn and what uncertainties remain. Instead of focusing on how techniques were used to understand systems, as is the case with most reviews on the topic, this work instead initiates a nuanced discussion of 1) how to best carry out each technique and 2) initiate a nuanced analysis of which level of insights can be drawn from the set of in-situ or operando experiments/controls carried out. We focus on several commonly used techniques, including vibrational (IR, Raman) spectroscopy, X-ray absorption spectroscopy and electrochemical mass spectrometry. In addition to this, we include sections of reactor design and the link with theoretical modelling that are applicable across all techniques. While we focus on heterogeneous electrocatalysis, we make links when appropriate to the areas of photo- and thermo-catalytic systems. We highlight common pitfalls in the field, how to avoid them, and what sets of complementary experiments may be used to strengthen the analysis. We end with an overview of what gaps remain in in-situ and operando techniques and what innovations must be made to overcome them.

Date: 2025
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DOI: 10.1038/s41467-025-57563-6

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