Financial Development and Growth Volatility: Evidence of Nonlinear Effects from Pakistan

Mansoor Mushtaq and Gulnaz Hameed
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Mansoor Mushtaq: FAST School of Management, National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan.
Gulnaz Hameed: Department of Economics and Agricultural Economics, PMAS-Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, 46000, Pakistan.

Asian Journal of Applied Economics/ Applied Economics Journal, 2026, vol. 33, issue 1

Abstract: Background and Objectives: Output growth in Pakistan has exhibited substantial fluctuations over the past decades due to domestic policy shocks, external disturbances, and structural weaknesses in the financial intermediation system. Although a large body of literature links financial development to long-run economic growth, its role in stabilizing or destabilizing growth remains inconclusive. Cross-country evidence suggests that deeper financial systems can dampen macroeconomic volatility; however, this stabilizing effect may weaken or reverse beyond certain levels of financial development. Despite this growing literature, country-specific time-series evidence for Pakistan remains limited, particularly studies that incorporate comprehensive measures of financial development and allow for nonlinear effects. This study therefore aims to: (i) examine the long-run relationship between financial development and growth volatility in Pakistan; (ii) test for nonlinearities through the inclusion of a squared financial development term; and (iii) assess the roles of government expenditure, inflation, consumption, and remittances as additional determinants of growth volatility over the period 1985–2023.

Methodology: Using annual time-series data for Pakistan from 1985 to 2023, growth volatility is modeled as a function of financial development and selected macroeconomic controls. Growth volatility is measured as the five-year rolling standard deviation of GDP per capita growth, capturing medium-term fluctuations while smoothing short-run noise. Financial development is proxied by two alternative measures: (i) domestic credit to the private sector as a percentage of GDP and (ii) a composite financial development index reflecting depth, access, and efficiency. To examine nonlinear dynamics, a squared financial development term is included. The empirical strategy proceeds in two steps. First, Augmented Dickey–Fuller tests are conducted to determine the order of integration, followed by Johansen cointegration tests to identify long-run equilibrium relationships. Second, a Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) is estimated to capture both long-run dynamics and short-run adjustment processes. Robustness checks are performed using alternative financial development proxies.

Key Findings: The results reveal a nonlinear (U-shaped) relationship between financial development and growth volatility. In the long run, financial development initially reduces growth volatility by enhancing risk sharing, smoothing consumption and investment, and improving allocative efficiency. However, beyond a threshold level, further financial deepening is associated with increased volatility, suggesting that excessive or insufficiently regulated credit expansion may amplify macroeconomic instability. Government expenditure, inflation, and consumption are found to increase growth volatility, consistent with evidence on procyclical fiscal behavior and macroeconomic instability in developing economies. In contrast, remittances exert a stabilizing effect by acting as a countercyclical buffer. Robustness analysis confirms the consistency of the nonlinear relationship across alternative measures of financial development.

Policy Implications: The findings support a balanced and well-regulated approach to financial sector reform in Pakistan. While expanding access to credit and strengthening financial infrastructure can reduce growth volatility, effective regulatory oversight and prudent supervision are essential to prevent excessive risk-taking. Strengthening countercyclical fiscal frameworks and maintaining price stability are equally important for macroeconomic resilience. Policies aimed at lowering remittance transaction costs and channeling inflows into productive investment within an inclusive financial system may further enhance economic stability. Overall, financial development—when supported by sound regulation and coherent macroeconomic polici

Keywords: Financial Development; Growth Volatility; Nonlinear Relationship; Macroeconomic Stability; Pakistan (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: E32 G21 O16 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2026
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