Long Work Hours and Long Commutes in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana: Time Poverty and Gender

Fiona Carmichael, Patricia Daley, Christian Darko, Jo Duberley, Marco Ercolani, Tim Schwanen and Daniel Wheatley

Feminist Economics, 2025, vol. 31, issue 2, 57-89

Abstract: Previous research suggests that women in Sub-Saharan African and other low- and middle-income countries are more time-poor than men. There is also contrary evidence that highlights differences in women's employment rates and access to basic infrastructure. This study examines gender differences in the length of the working day and time poverty in Ghana's Greater Accra Region. The analysis uses a unique primary dataset that includes time spent commuting to and from work and time in paid and unpaid work. Time spent commuting is salient in the Greater Accra Region; commute times can be long and public transport, mainly by trotro, is often uncomfortable. The analysis shows that, when time commuting and in household work are included, women's working days are longer and they are more time-poor than men. Women's greater reliance on trotros for commuting and higher rates of small scale self-employment also contribute to their longer working days.HIGHLIGHTSTime poverty limits time for leisure, sleep, and personal care, impacting life quality.In the Greater Accra Region, working days are long, averaging over twelve hours and commuting times add on average two hours to the working day.Women’s working days are 0.8 h longer, and they are more likely to be time poor.Women's time poverty reflects longer hours in unpaid household work.Self-employed women with no employees are among the most time poor.

Date: 2025
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DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2024.2413913

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