Confucianism and Imbalance in the Sex Ratio at Birth in Modern China

Jia Cao, Rongjie Chen and Minghao Li

Journal of Development Studies, 2026, vol. 62, issue 2, 332-349

Abstract: The male-biased imbalance in the sex ratio at birth (SRB) continues to pose a challenge to China and other developing countries. While previous studies mostly focus on policy and technological factors, we examine this issue from a cultural perspective. We find that Confucianism, measured by the density of imperial exam finalists (jinshi) in the Ming and Qing dynasties, has an exacerbating effect on the SRB imbalance in modern China. The result is qualitatively robust to using the distance to the nearest historical Confucius school (Zhu Xi Academy) as an instrumental variable. This finding remains robust when controlling for fertility rates and policies, clan culture, and other religions. The potential channels through which Confucianism affects SRB imbalance are also discussed. Specifically, we find suggestive evidence that Confucianism leads to SRB imbalance by reinforcing people’s gender attitudes and widening the gap between men’s and women’s educational attainment.

Date: 2026
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DOI: 10.1080/00220388.2025.2563841

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