A Gendered Bystander Effect: Experimental Evidence on the Vulnerability to International Human Trafficking of Wo(Men) in Tanzania

Julia Kleinewiese and Sandra Morgenstern

Journal of Development Studies, 2026, vol. 62, issue 5, 737-757

Abstract: Which gender is more vulnerable to human trafficking recruitment, and does a bystander from the community reduce situational vulnerability? Moving away from the passive victim framework, we hypothesise that vulnerability to an exploitative overseas job-offer can be rational, vary by gender, and be moderated by the situational social influence of another person. Building on rational choice and the literature on irregular labour migration, we conducted a lab-in-the-field experiment in a medium-sized city in Tanzania. Our analyses show no evidence of differential vulnerability by gender per sé, but a gendered bystander effect. The influence of an additional person from the community in the setting, appears to reproduce gendered social norms that push men towards risk-taking and hence vulnerability. Another finding that seems counter-intuitive at first is that people who struggle to meet their most basic needs are less vulnerable. The findings highlight the multifaceted nature of gendered vulnerability, with important implications for the necessity of gender sensitivity in international human trafficking prevention activities. They challenge the conventional wisdom that female vulnerability is the prime issue prevention strategies would need to tackle, emphasising male vulnerability, the role of targeting based on sex, and the potential of prevention-strategies at the community level.

Date: 2026
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DOI: 10.1080/00220388.2025.2571704

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