‘Alexa, what do you mean to me?’: a scoping review and model of parasocial relationship formation with smart speakers

Charlotte Elizabeth Griffin and Georgina Powell

Behaviour and Information Technology, 2025, vol. 44, issue 19, 4796-4822

Abstract: This scoping review evaluates the literature on the social aspects of smart speaker use, with a focus on how parasocial relationships form and their outcomes. A key contribution of this review is the proposal of a ‘Parasocial Relationship Spectrum’, which classifies the types of relationships users develop with smart speakers. Additionally, we establish isolation and older age as predictors of parasocial relationships with smart speakers, while identifying emotional comfort and reduced loneliness as key outcomes.A major gap in existing research is the lack of long-term, targeted studies on the full range of effects from smart speaker-based interventions, particularly in vulnerable populations. To address this, we integrate findings from parasocial and human–computer interaction research to propose a novel framework – the ASAP Pathway (Anthropomorphic – Social Agent – Parasocial) – as a mechanism explaining how users develop parasocial relationships with smart speakers. This framework offers a structured approach to further studying interactions with smart speakers and their outcomes.Finally, we emphasise the need for future research to refine and validate the ASAP Pathway, ensuring that smart speaker-based social interventions maximise benefits while minimising risks. By doing so, this review provides theoretical advancements and practical implications for implementing smart speakers in social and therapeutic contexts.

Date: 2025
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DOI: 10.1080/0144929X.2025.2492701

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