The Silent Workforce

Krishna Muniyoor, Balakrushna Padhi and Simran Jain

World Economics, 2026, vol. 27, issue 2, 63-86

Abstract: This study examines the influence of human development indicators on women's participation in unpaid domestic work in India, using nationally representative NSSO data from 1993-94 to 2021-22. It further conducts a comparative analysis of the structure and patterns of unpaid domestic duties between two contrasting Indian states: Kerala, known for its high human development achievements, and Bihar, which continues to lag significantly in human development indicators. Key findings reveal that women's involvement in unpaid domestic work is substantially higher in Bihar than in Kerala. Importantly, the study observes that as economic conditions improve, women's engagement in unpaid domestic work tends to rise, a pattern consistent with the declining stage of the feminisation U hypothesis. From a policy perspective, the study emphasises the need for government intervention in creating decent work opportunities, enhancing women's educational attainment, and upgrading their technical and vocational skills. Such measures are indispensable to promote inclusive economic growth and reduce the disproportionate burden of unpaid domestic work on women.

Date: 2026
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