School-Based Disability Identification Varies by Student Family Income

Nicholas J. Ainsworth, Christopher Cleveland, Leah R. Clark, Jacob Hibel, Quentin Brummet, Andrew Saultz, Emily K. Penner, Michelle Spiegel, Paul Y. Yoo, Juan Camilo Cristancho, Paul Hanselman and Andrew Penner

Working Papers from U.S. Census Bureau, Center for Economic Studies

Abstract: Currently, 18 percent of K-12 students in the United States receive additional supports through the identification of a disability. Socioeconomic status is viewed as central to understanding who gets identified as having a disability, yet limited large-scale evidence examines how disability identification varies for students from different income backgrounds. Using unique data linking information on Oregon students and their family income, we document pronounced income-based differences in how students are categorized for two school-based disability supports: special education services and Section 504 plans. We find that a quarter of students in the lowest income percentile receive supports through special education, compared with less than seven percent of students in the top income percentile. This pattern may partially reflect differences in underlying disability-related needs caused by poverty. However, we find the opposite pattern for 504 plans, where students in the top income percentiles are two times more likely to receive 504 plan supports. We further document substantial variation in these income-based differences by disability category, by race/ethnicity, and by grade level. Together, these patterns suggest that disability-related needs alone cannot account for the income-based differences that we observe and highlight the complex ways that income shapes the school and family processes that lead to variability in disability classification and services.

Date: 2025-12
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https://www2.census.gov/library/working-papers/2025/adrm/ces/CES-WP-25-74.pdf First version, 2025 (application/pdf)

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Persistent link: https://EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc:cen:wpaper:25-74

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