Identifying left-behind places: A multidimensional typology at the municipal level

Luisa Alamá-Sabater (), Miguel Ángel Márquez (), Guillem Rodilla () and Emili Tortosa-Ausina ()
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Luisa Alamá-Sabater: Department of Economics and IIDL, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
Miguel Ángel Márquez: Department of Economics, Universidad de Extremadura, Spain
Guillem Rodilla: Department of Applied Mathematics, Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain
Emili Tortosa-Ausina: IVIE, Valencia and IIDL and Department of Economics, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón, Spain

No 2026/09, Working Papers from Economics Department, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón (Spain)

Abstract: This paper investigates how demographic, socioeconomic, and second-nature geographic factors jointly shape the emergence, spatial distribution, and heterogeneity of left-behind places (LBPs) in Spain. Using municipal-level data, it develops an empirical strategy combining cluster analysis, frontier analysis, and a multinomial logit model to identify distinct types of territorial vulnerability, to measure how close municipalities are to transitioning into more disadvantaged states, and to estimate the probability of belonging to specific LBP categories. The results reveal substantial heterogeneity across left-behind places, uncovering multiple forms of municipal vulnerability. A central contribution is the explicit incorporation of second-nature geography into the clustering procedure itself rather than treating geography as a merely contextual or ex post factor. These variables emerge as critical drivers of territorial disadvantage, and their inclusion leads to the reclassification of nearly 20% of Spanish municipalities, uncovering forms of hidden marginality that would remain invisible in analyses based solely on demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. From a policy perspective, the findings support a shift toward what the authors term systemic place-based policies; forward-looking strategies that seek to reshape the spatial preconditions for economic activity rather than simply adapting to existing territorial structures.

Keywords: cluster analysis; depopulation; left-behind places; rural; urban (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: C3 O18 O21 R1 R23 R3 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Pages: 54 pages
Date: 2026
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