Out-of-School Children in the Philippines: Post-Pandemic Realities and Emerging Challenges at the Educational Spectrum Extremes

Jose Ramon G. Author_Email: Albert, Mohammad A. Author_Email: Mahmoud, Deanne Lorraine D. Author_Email: Cabalfin and Sheryl Lyn C. Author_Email: Monterola

No DP 2025-34, Discussion Papers from Philippine Institute for Development Studies

Abstract: The magnitude of out-of-school children (OOSC) in the Philippines has shown both progress and challenges in recent years. While the national OOSC rate decreased from 5.9 percent (1.64 million children) in 2017 to 4.1 percent (1.16 million children) in 2022, and further improved to 4.9 percent in 2023, troubling increases emerged at both ends of the age spectrum: among 5-year-olds who should be in kindergarten and among senior high school-aged children (16–17 years). This study employs a mixed-methods approach, analyzing Philippine Statistics Authority surveys, including the Annual Poverty Indicator Survey, the Family Income and Expenditure Survey, and the Labor Force Survey, alongside Department of Education (DepEd) administrative records. The study combines descriptive statistical analysis with econometric modeling using logistic regression to identify the determinants of school non-participation. It also provides estimates of children in seven dimensions of exclusion, which include both children currently not in school and those at risk of dropping out. Primary data collection involves key informant interviews with DepEd field staff, school heads, teachers, parents, and learners, including those who are OOSC. The study reveals remarkable system resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic, with recovery to below pre-pandemic levels by 2022, while new age-specific barriers have emerged that require targeted interventions. Logistic regression results identify work status as the strongest predictor of non-attendance among high school-aged children (35 percentage point effect), followed by marriage (67 percentage point effect), while household income effects strengthened during the pandemic period, particularly for younger children. Female children consistently show a lower probability of being out of school across all age groups, and substantial regional variation persists even after controlling for household characteristics. Fieldwork from four study sites identified factors exacerbating these risks, including digital distractions and peer pressure among older youth (e.g., late-night gaming leading to chronic absenteeism), documentation barriers delaying kindergarten entry, and geographic isolation in rural areas. Policy recommendations are anchored in a comprehensive seven-pillar approach designed to holistically address OOSC challenges across age groups, sexes, and regions. The first pillar focuses on School Age Entry Advocacy, addressing the "too young" barrier through targeted campaigns that recognize disparities, particularly affecting 79 percent of boys and 77 percent of girls. The second pillar, Child Find, implements systematic mapping to enable precise, targeted interventions. Modern Pedagogy forms the third pillar, integrating educational technology with engaging teaching methods to make learning more accessible. The fourth pillar, HTHT (Human-Technology-Human Touch), emphasizes technology-enhanced learning with critical human connections. Economic Rebalancing constitutes the fifth pillar, directly addressing work-versus-education trade-offs that disproportionately impact different demographic groups. The sixth pillar, Enhanced Accelerated Education, provides condensed timelines, skills training, and internships to recapture and reintegrate out-of-school children. The final pillar, Supportive Ecosystems, can buffer barriers to schooling that are hidden from surveys. This multifaceted approach recognizes the complex, intersectional nature of educational exclusion, offering nuanced strategies to address systemic barriers across different age groups, genders, and regional contexts. Comments to this paper are welcome within 60 days from the date of posting. Email publications@pids.gov.ph.

Keywords: out-of-school children; education access; kindergarten; senior high school; Philippines; educational policy (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Pages: 99
Date: 2025
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Persistent link: https://EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc:phd:dpaper:dp_2025-34

DOI: 10.62986/dp2025.34

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