Sand-Based Thermal Storage System for Human-Powered Energy Generation: A Review

Qirui Ding, Lili Zeng, Ying Zeng, Changhui Song, Liang Lei and Weicheng Cui ()
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Qirui Ding: Key Laboratory of 3D Micro/Nano Fabrication and Characterization of Zhejiang Province, School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310030, China
Lili Zeng: Key Laboratory of 3D Micro/Nano Fabrication and Characterization of Zhejiang Province, School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310030, China
Ying Zeng: Hangzhou Navigation Instrument Co., Ltd., Hangzhou 310030, China
Changhui Song: Key Laboratory of 3D Micro/Nano Fabrication and Characterization of Zhejiang Province, School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310030, China
Liang Lei: Center for Advanced Engineering Sciences and Technology, School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310030, China
Weicheng Cui: Key Laboratory of 3D Micro/Nano Fabrication and Characterization of Zhejiang Province, School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310030, China

Energies, 2025, vol. 18, issue 22, 1-39

Abstract: Sand-based thermal energy storage systems represent a paradigm shift in sustainable energy solutions, leveraging Earth’s most abundant mineral resource through advanced nanocomposite engineering. This review examines sand-based phase change materials (PCM) systems with emphasis on integration with human-powered energy generation (HPEG). Silicon-based hierarchical pore structures provide multiscale thermal conduction pathways while achieving PCM loading capacities exceeding 90%. Carbon-based nanomaterial doping enhances thermal conductivity by up to 269%, reaching 3.1 W/m·K while maintaining phase change enthalpies above 130 J/g. This demonstrated cycling stability exceeds 1000 thermal cycles with <8% capacity degradation. Thermal energy storage costs reach ~$20 kWh −1 —60% lower than lithium-ion systems when normalized by usable heat capacity. Integration with triboelectric nanogenerators achieves 55% peak mechanical-to-electrical conversion efficiency for direct pathways, while thermal-buffered systems provide 8–12% end-to-end efficiency with temporal decoupling between intermittent human power input and stable electrical output. Miniaturized systems target off-grid communities, offering 5–10× cost advantages over conventional batteries for resource-constrained deployments. Levelized storage costs remain competitive despite efficiency penalties versus lithium-ion alternatives. Critical challenges, including thermal cycling degradation, energy-power density trade-offs, and environmental adaptability, are systematically analyzed. Future directions explore biomimetic multi-level pore designs, intelligent responsive systems, and distributed microgrid implementations.

Keywords: phase change materials (PCMs); sand-based thermal storage; nanocomposite engineering; human-powered electricity generation (HPEG); off-grid systems (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: Q Q0 Q4 Q40 Q41 Q42 Q43 Q47 Q48 Q49 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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