Tianchuang in National Parks of China: Its Concept, Causes, and Consequences

Rong Tao, Tianjiao Li () and Xujiao Zhang
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Rong Tao: Institute of Nature & Culture, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China
Tianjiao Li: Institute of Nature & Culture, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China
Xujiao Zhang: School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China

Land, 2025, vol. 14, issue 11, 1-16

Abstract: In global national parks, many land parcels, despite being inside park boundaries, have incompatible land uses with their surroundings and are normally not integrated into the park’s unified management. These non-contiguous management spaces present common and persistent spatial management challenges. In China, such spaces are called Tianchuang , a relatively new phenomenon that is underexplored in current research. Therefore, this study explores Tianchuang ’s concept, causes, and consequences through policy and literature, and it compares Tianchuang with international cases to situate China’s experience in a global perspective. The findings are as follows. Firstly, originating from functional conflicts and historical legacies, Tianchuang are land parcels that retain their original usage, not ecologically coherent with the overall protected area and temporarily not incorporated into unified management. Secondly, there are three typical approaches to deal with land parcels that have incompatible land uses with their surroundings, including withdrawal, boundary adjustment, and Tianchuang . Compared with the other two approaches, Tianchuang serves as a way to balance ecological protection and local development, and as a transitional method for potential integration into unified management. Thirdly, by alleviating short-term institutional and social conflicts, Tianchuang creates challenges for ecosystem integrity and connectivity, management responsibilities, and community trust. Finally, through cross-national comparisons with U.S. inholdings, Australian indigenous co-management, and Nigerian GGNP enclaves, the uniqueness of Tianchuang in China is highlighted as a proactive policy design under centralized governance that balances efficiency and flexibility, with potential for unified management in the future. This study provides theoretical support for China’s national park Tianchuang governance and contributes Chinese insights in terms of non-contiguous management spaces in national parks for global protected area governance.

Keywords: protected area management; national parks; Tianchuang; three zones and three lines; China (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: Q15 Q2 Q24 Q28 Q5 R14 R52 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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