Spatio-Temporal Assessment of Land Surface Temperature, Vegetation Cover, and Built-Up Areas Using LST, NDVI, and NDBI in Balıkesir, Türkiye (1985–2025)

Figen Altıner () and Faruk Bingöl
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Figen Altıner: Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture, Balıkesir University, Balıkesir 10010, Türkiye
Faruk Bingöl: Institute of Social Science, Department of Geography, Harran University; Şanlıurfa 63000, Türkiye

Sustainability, 2025, vol. 17, issue 20, 1-26

Abstract: This study offers a four-decade evaluation of land surface temperature (LST) dynamics in relation to urban growth in Balıkesir, Turkey, between 1985 and 2025. Using multi-temporal Landsat imagery (30 m), LST, NDVI, and NDBI maps were generated and assessed through Pearson and partial correlation analyses. MODIS and Sentinel-3 datasets (1 km) were additionally employed to enable comparative analysis. Results reveal robust and statistically significant correlations: urban expansion amplified LST, while vegetation provided consistent cooling effects. Unlike MODIS and Sentinel-3, Landsat data accurately captured localized hot and cool spots, highlighting the importance of spatial resolution in urban climate studies. Temporal patterns reveal a post-2005 decline in NDVI under increasing urban pressures and a subsequent deceleration of built-up expansion after 2015. Mean LST increased from 41 °C in 1985 to 52 °C in 2025, with the hottest temperature class covering over half of the study area. These findings not only confirm the intensification of urban-induced warming, but also contribute a novel methodological framework that integrates multi-sensor, multi-scale datasets into long-term analyses. The study extends the literature by linking remote sensing outcomes directly to urban resilience strategies, emphasizing the role of blue–green infrastructure and climate-sensitive planning in mitigating future thermal risks.

Keywords: urban landscape planning; land surface temperature; green infrastructure; NDVI; NDBI; sustainable planning (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: O13 Q Q0 Q2 Q3 Q5 Q56 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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