Application of Economic, Environmental, and Social Methods and Indicators for Assessing the Sustainability Impact of Three Mini-Grid Projects: Case Studies in Mozambique

Emília Inês Come Zebra (), Henny J. van der Windt, René M. J. Benders, Debora Ghezzi, Matteo V. Rocco, Muhammad Shoaib Ahmed Khan, Busola Dorcas Akintayo and André P. C. Faaij
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Emília Inês Come Zebra: Integrated Research on Energy, Environment and Society (IREES), University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 6, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
Henny J. van der Windt: Integrated Research on Energy, Environment and Society (IREES), University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 6, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
René M. J. Benders: Integrated Research on Energy, Environment and Society (IREES), University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 6, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
Debora Ghezzi: Department of Energy, Politecnico di Milano, Via Lambruschini 4, 20156 Milan, Italy
Matteo V. Rocco: Department of Energy, Politecnico di Milano, Via Lambruschini 4, 20156 Milan, Italy
Muhammad Shoaib Ahmed Khan: College of Electrical & Mechanical Engineering, National University of Sciences & Technology, Islamabad 44080, Pakistan
Busola Dorcas Akintayo: Institute of Sustainable Systems (ISS), Durban University of Technology, Musgrave, Berea, Durban 4001, South Africa
André P. C. Faaij: Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eduardo Mondlane University, Av. de Moçambique km 1.5, Maputo P.O. Box 257, Mozambique

Sustainability, 2026, vol. 18, issue 12, 1-38

Abstract: The deployment of rural electrification actions through off-grid mini-grid solutions is one of the most effective approaches to achieving universal access to electricity in an affordable, reliable, and sustainable way. To assess the sustainability of three mini-grid projects (Sembezea, Mawayela, and Dongane), this study applied a framework that integrates different methods (HOMER, LCA based on SimaPro, and Input–Output) and indicators under the economic, environmental, and social dimensions. Data for the analysis were obtained through site visits in the case study areas, a literature review, and the HOMER and ecoinvent databases. Sembezea and Mawayela were assessed based on their operational experience, whereas the Dongane biogas system is analyzed based on a projected household biodigester experience. The results of this study revealed the considerable benefits of biogas in generating local employment (506 employees) compared to wind/solar PV (98 employees) and hydro/solar PV (91 employees), as it is expected to require a considerable number of employees for feedstock collection for the digester, under the assumed scale and conditions. Additionally, in the long term, biogas would present the lowest cost of electricity at $0.22/kWh compared to wind/solar PV ($0.28/kWh) and hydro/solar PV ($0.60/kWh), thereby improving the ability of the local community to pay for electricity. In contrast, this study concluded that, in terms of environmental impact—particularly CO 2 emissions—biogas has relatively poor environmental performance (4.58 × 10 −2 kg CO 2 eq) compared to wind/solar PV (8.50 × 10 −4 kg CO 2 eq) and hydro/solar PV (3.94 × 10 −4 kg CO 2 eq) in the long term. Nevertheless, biogas presents carbon neutrality as an advantage, in the sense that the CO 2 released during its combustion is assumed to be carbon-neutral. By applying the framework to the aforementioned case studies, the extent to which it is possible to provide an integrated overview of the economic, environmental, and social aspects, as well as the impacts of different HRES options in line with the SDGs, is demonstrated.

Keywords: framework application; integrated assessment; resource availability; multi-criteria decision analysis (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: O13 Q Q0 Q2 Q3 Q5 Q56 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2026
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