Natural language processing for planning policy identification: A benchmarking study using 113 Chinese cities between 2011 and 2019

Tianyuan Wang, Jerry Chen, Zhenyun Deng and Li Wan

Environment and Planning B, 2026, vol. 53, issue 1, 107-124

Abstract: Identifying policy topics from lengthy text documents such as official reports is an important analytical task for policy evaluation purposes; yet it is a time-consuming process if done manually. Advanced Natural Language Processing (NLP) models such as Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) model and other emerging Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated the capability to capture semantic meanings within sentences. However, BERT-based models require substantial expert-labelled training data for fine-tuning for optimal performance, whereas off-the-shelf LLMs provide greater flexibility but tend to overgeneralise. This paper aims to (1) demonstrate three NLP/LLMs methods (fine-tuned BERT, with 10,000 manually labelled sentences; standard GPT-4o; and GPT-4o with in-context learning, with five example sentences provided for each policy domain) for identifying planning policies from planning documents at sentence level and (2) assess the accuracy of NLP/LLMs in policy identification, using 2,000 manually identified results by planning experts as the benchmark. Our results demonstrate that policy identification can be performed effectively and accurately when in-domain labelled training data is available, achieving a high out-of-sample accuracy of 92.50%. However, the time and labor cost of manual labelling is significant. In cases where in-domain training data is lacking, LLMs can still achieve a notable accuracy of 72.50%, which improves to 87.75% when given a small number of examples and 89.00% with role-prompting that guides the model to act as an urban planning research expert. We applied this method to analyse policy priority across 1,026 official government annual reports for both the national level and across 113 prefecture-level cities in China between 2011 and 2019. We found significant divergence between national and local planning policies and cross-city heterogeneity in planning policies.

Keywords: Planning policy; natural language processing; large language model; GPT; multi-label classification (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2026
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Persistent link: https://EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc:sae:envirb:v:53:y:2026:i:1:p:107-124

DOI: 10.1177/23998083251351743

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