Changing Fatherhood: Social Differences in Parental Leave Uptake and Childcare Participation Among Bulgarian Men

Tatyana Kotzeva, Elitsa Dimitrova and Kalina Ilieva
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Tatyana Kotzeva: Institute for Population and Human Studies, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria
Elitsa Dimitrova: Institute for Population and Human Studies, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria
Kalina Ilieva: Institute for Population and Human Studies, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria

Social Inclusion, 2026, vol. 14

Abstract: This study investigates social disparities in the uptake of paid parental leave (PPL) and engagement in childcare by Bulgarian fathers within the context of shifting gender norms and recent policy reforms. Based on survey data from 503 fathers of young children, it examines attitudes toward involved fatherhood, motivations and obstacles to PPL use, and the interaction between gender stereotypes and socioeconomic conditions. Despite EU‐aligned measures such as a two‐month non‐transferable paternal leave, uptake remains limited due to enduring male breadwinner expectations, income‐related disincentives, and traditional caregiving models centered on mothers. Findings indicate a hybrid model of fatherhood: While maternal dominance in caregiving persists, a growing number of fathers, particularly those with higher education or remote work opportunities, are adopting more egalitarian roles. Logistic regression results highlight key predictors of PPL uptake, including the number of children, household income, and workplace flexibility. Moreover, PPL use of fathers correlates positively with egalitarian gender attitudes, implying that paternal leave functions as both a reflection and a catalyst of cultural transformation. Nonetheless, ambivalence endures among lower‐income and less educated fathers, for whom caregiving often conflicts with masculine identity. Overall, the analysis underscores that although normative shifts are emerging, sustained progress requires comprehensive support through policy, workplace culture, and broader societal change to promote equitable parenting and normalize active fatherhood. The findings enrich ongoing discussions on gender equality, social inclusion, and evolving masculinities in post‐socialist societies.

Keywords: Bulgaria; fatherhood; gender equality; gender roles; hybrid masculinity; paid parental leave (PPL); paternal involvement; work–life balance (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2026
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Persistent link: https://EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc:cog:socinc:v14:y:2026:a:10845

DOI: 10.17645/si.10845

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