Ultrahigh-energy photons up to 1.4 petaelectronvolts from 12 γ-ray Galactic sources

Cao, Zhen; Aharonian, F. A.; An, Q.; Axikegu; Bai, L. X.; Bai, Y. X.; Bao, Y. W.; Bastieri, D.; Bi, X. J.; Bi, Y. J.; Cai, H.; Cai, J. T.; Cao, Zhe; Chang, J.; Chang, J. F.; Chang, X. C.; Chen, B. M.; Chen, J.; Chen, L.; Chen, Liang; Chen, Long; Chen, M. J.; Chen, M. L.; Chen, Q. H.; Chen, S. H.; Chen, S. Z.; Chen, T. L.; Chen, X. L.; Chen, Y.; Cheng, N.; Cheng, Y. D.; Cui, S. W.; Cui, X. H.; Cui, Y. D.; Dai, B. Z.; Dai, H. L.; Dai, Z. G.; Danzengluobu; Volpe, D.; Piazzoli, B. D′Ettorre; Dong, X. J.; Fan, J. H.; Fan, Y. Z.; Fan, Z. X.; Fang, J.; Fang, K.; Feng, C. F.; Feng, L.; Feng, S. H.; Feng, Y. L.; Gao, B.; Gao, C. D.; Gao, Q.; Gao, W.; Ge, M. M.; Geng, L. S.; Gong, G. H.; Gou, Q. B.; Gu, M. H.; Guo, J. G.; Guo, X. L.; Guo, Y. Q.; Guo, Y. Y.; Han, Y. A.; He, H. H.; He, H. N.; He, J. C.; He, S. L.; He, X. B.; He, Y.; Heller, M.; Hor, Y. K.; Hou, C.; Hou, X.; Hu, H. B.; Hu, S.; Hu, S. C.; Hu, X. J.; Huang, D. H.; Huang, Q. L.; Huang, W. H.; Huang, X. T.; Huang, Z. C.; Ji, F.; Ji, X. L.; Jia, H. Y.; Jiang, K.; Jiang, Z. J.; Jin, C.; Kuleshov, D.; Levochkin, K.; Li, B. B.; Li, Cong; Li, Cheng; Li, F.; Li, H. B.; Li, H. C.; Li, H. Y.; Li, J.; Li, K.; Li, W. L.; Li, X.; Li, Xin; Li, X. R.; Li, Y.; Li, Y. Z.; Li, Zhe; Li, Zhuo; Liang, E. W.; Liang, Y. F.; Lin, S. J.; Liu, B.; Liu, C.; Liu, D.; Liu, H.; Liu, H. D.; Liu, J.; Liu, J. L.; Liu, J. S.; Liu, J. Y.; Liu, M. Y.; Liu, R. Y.; Liu, S. M.; Liu, W.; Liu, Y. N.; Liu, Z. X.; Long, W. J.; Lu, R.; Lv, H. K.; Ma, B. Q.; Ma, L. L.; Ma, X. H.; Mao, J. R.; Masood, A.; Mitthumsiri, W.; Montaruli, T.; Nan, Y. C.; Pang, B. Y.; Pattarakijwanich, P.; Pei, Z. Y.; Qi, M. Y.; Ruffolo, D.; Rulev, V.; Sáiz, A.; Shao, L.; Shchegolev, O.; Sheng, X. D.; Shi, J. R.; Song, H. C.; Stenkin, Yu. V.; Stepanov, V.; Sun, Q. N.; Sun, X. N.; Sun, Z. B.; Tam, P. H. T.; Tang, Z. B.; Tian, W. W.; Wang, B. D.; Wang, C.; Wang, H.; Wang, H. G.; Wang, J. C.; Wang, J. S.; Wang, L. P.; Wang, L. Y.; Wang, R. N.; Wang, W.; Wang, W.; Wang, X. G.; Wang, X. J.; Wang, X. Y.; Wang, Y. D.; Wang, Y. J.; Wang, Y. P.; Wang, Zheng; Wang, Zhen; Wang, Z. H.; Wang, Z. X.; Wei, D. M.; Wei, J. J.; Wei, Y. J.; Wen, T.; Wu, C. Y.; Wu, H. R.; Wu, S.; Wu, W. X.; Wu, X. F.; Xi, S. Q.; Xia, J.; Xia, J. J.; Xiang, G. M.; Xiao, G.; Xiao, H. B.; Xin, G. G.; Xin, Y. L.; Xing, Y.; Xu, D. L.; Xu, R. X.; Xue, L.; Yan, D. H.; Yang, C. W.; Yang, F. F.; Yang, J. Y.; Yang, L. L.; Yang, M. J.; Yang, R. Z.; Yang, S. B.; Yao, Y. H.; Yao, Z. G.; Ye, Y. M.; Yin, L. Q.; Yin, N.; You, X. H.; You, Z. Y.; Yu, Y. H.; Yuan, Q.; Zeng, H. D.; Zeng, T. X.; Zeng, W.; Zeng, Z. K.; Zha, M.; Zhai, X. X.; Zhang, B. B.; Zhang, H. M.; Zhang, H. Y.; Zhang, J. L.; Zhang, J. W.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, Li; Zhang, L. X.; Zhang, P. F.; Zhang, P. P.; Zhang, R.; Zhang, S. R.; Zhang, S. S.; Zhang, X.; Zhang, X. P.; Zhang, Yong; Zhang, Yi; Zhang, Y. F.; Zhang, Y. L.; Zhao, B.; Zhao, J.; Zhao, L.; Zhao, L. Z.; Zhao, S. P.; Zheng, F.; Zheng, Y.; Zhou, B.; Zhou, H.; Zhou, J. N.; Zhou, P.; Zhou, R.; Zhou, X. X.; Zhu, C. G.; Zhu, F. R.; Zhu, H.; Zhu, K. J.; Zuo, X.

Ultrahigh-energy photons up to 1.4 petaelectronvolts from 12 γ-ray Galactic sources

Zhen Cao (), F. A. Aharonian (), Q. An, Axikegu, L. X. Bai, Y. X. Bai, Y. W. Bao, D. Bastieri, X. J. Bi, Y. J. Bi, H. Cai, J. T. Cai, Zhe Cao, J. Chang, J. F. Chang, X. C. Chang, B. M. Chen, J. Chen, L. Chen, Liang Chen, Long Chen, M. J. Chen, M. L. Chen, Q. H. Chen, S. H. Chen, S. Z. Chen (), T. L. Chen, X. L. Chen, Y. Chen, N. Cheng, Y. D. Cheng, S. W. Cui, X. H. Cui, Y. D. Cui, B. Z. Dai, H. L. Dai, Z. G. Dai, Danzengluobu, D. Volpe, B. D′Ettorre Piazzoli, X. J. Dong, J. H. Fan, Y. Z. Fan, Z. X. Fan, J. Fang, K. Fang, C. F. Feng, L. Feng, S. H. Feng, Y. L. Feng, B. Gao, C. D. Gao, Q. Gao, W. Gao, M. M. Ge, L. S. Geng, G. H. Gong, Q. B. Gou, M. H. Gu, J. G. Guo, X. L. Guo, Y. Q. Guo, Y. Y. Guo, Y. A. Han, H. H. He, H. N. He, J. C. He, S. L. He, X. B. He, Y. He, M. Heller, Y. K. Hor, C. Hou, X. Hou, H. B. Hu, S. Hu, S. C. Hu, X. J. Hu, D. H. Huang, Q. L. Huang, W. H. Huang, X. T. Huang, Z. C. Huang, F. Ji, X. L. Ji, H. Y. Jia, K. Jiang, Z. J. Jiang, C. Jin, D. Kuleshov, K. Levochkin, B. B. Li, Cong Li, Cheng Li, F. Li, H. B. Li, H. C. Li, H. Y. Li, J. Li, K. Li, W. L. Li, X. Li, Xin Li, X. R. Li, Y. Li, Y. Z. Li, Zhe Li, Zhuo Li, E. W. Liang, Y. F. Liang, S. J. Lin, B. Liu, C. Liu, D. Liu, H. Liu, H. D. Liu, J. Liu, J. L. Liu, J. S. Liu, J. Y. Liu, M. Y. Liu, R. Y. Liu (), S. M. Liu, W. Liu, Y. N. Liu, Z. X. Liu, W. J. Long, R. Lu, H. K. Lv, B. Q. Ma, L. L. Ma, X. H. Ma, J. R. Mao, A. Masood, W. Mitthumsiri, T. Montaruli, Y. C. Nan, B. Y. Pang, P. Pattarakijwanich, Z. Y. Pei, M. Y. Qi, D. Ruffolo, V. Rulev, A. Sáiz, L. Shao, O. Shchegolev, X. D. Sheng, J. R. Shi, H. C. Song, Yu. V. Stenkin, V. Stepanov, Q. N. Sun, X. N. Sun, Z. B. Sun, P. H. T. Tam, Z. B. Tang, W. W. Tian, B. D. Wang, C. Wang, H. Wang, H. G. Wang, J. C. Wang, J. S. Wang, L. P. Wang, L. Y. Wang, R. N. Wang, W. Wang, W. Wang, X. G. Wang, X. J. Wang, X. Y. Wang, Y. D. Wang, Y. J. Wang, Y. P. Wang, Zheng Wang, Zhen Wang, Z. H. Wang, Z. X. Wang, D. M. Wei, J. J. Wei, Y. J. Wei, T. Wen, C. Y. Wu, H. R. Wu, S. Wu, W. X. Wu, X. F. Wu, S. Q. Xi, J. Xia, J. J. Xia, G. M. Xiang, G. Xiao, H. B. Xiao, G. G. Xin, Y. L. Xin, Y. Xing, D. L. Xu, R. X. Xu, L. Xue, D. H. Yan, C. W. Yang, F. F. Yang, J. Y. Yang, L. L. Yang, M. J. Yang, R. Z. Yang (), S. B. Yang, Y. H. Yao, Z. G. Yao, Y. M. Ye, L. Q. Yin, N. Yin, X. H. You, Z. Y. You, Y. H. Yu, Q. Yuan, H. D. Zeng, T. X. Zeng, W. Zeng, Z. K. Zeng, M. Zha, X. X. Zhai, B. B. Zhang, H. M. Zhang, H. Y. Zhang, J. L. Zhang, J. W. Zhang, L. Zhang, Li Zhang, L. X. Zhang, P. F. Zhang, P. P. Zhang, R. Zhang, S. R. Zhang, S. S. Zhang, X. Zhang, X. P. Zhang, Yong Zhang, Yi Zhang, Y. F. Zhang, Y. L. Zhang, B. Zhao, J. Zhao, L. Zhao, L. Z. Zhao, S. P. Zhao, F. Zheng, Y. Zheng, B. Zhou, H. Zhou, J. N. Zhou, P. Zhou, R. Zhou, X. X. Zhou, C. G. Zhu, F. R. Zhu, H. Zhu, K. J. Zhu and X. Zuo
Additional contact information
Zhen Cao: Chinese Academy of Sciences
F. A. Aharonian: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies
Q. An: State Key Laboratory of Particle Detection and Electronics
Axikegu: Southwest Jiaotong University
L. X. Bai: Sichuan University
Y. X. Bai: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Y. W. Bao: Nanjing University
D. Bastieri: Guangzhou University
X. J. Bi: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Y. J. Bi: Chinese Academy of Sciences
H. Cai: Wuhan University
J. T. Cai: Guangzhou University
Zhe Cao: State Key Laboratory of Particle Detection and Electronics
J. Chang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
J. F. Chang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
X. C. Chang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
B. M. Chen: Hebei Normal University
J. Chen: Sichuan University
L. Chen: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Liang Chen: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Long Chen: Southwest Jiaotong University
M. J. Chen: Chinese Academy of Sciences
M. L. Chen: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Q. H. Chen: Southwest Jiaotong University
S. H. Chen: Chinese Academy of Sciences
S. Z. Chen: Chinese Academy of Sciences
T. L. Chen: Key Laboratory of Cosmic Rays (Tibet University), Ministry of Education
X. L. Chen: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Y. Chen: Nanjing University
N. Cheng: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Y. D. Cheng: Chinese Academy of Sciences
S. W. Cui: Hebei Normal University
X. H. Cui: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Y. D. Cui: Sun Yat-sen University
B. Z. Dai: Yunnan University
H. L. Dai: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Z. G. Dai: Nanjing University
Danzengluobu: Key Laboratory of Cosmic Rays (Tibet University), Ministry of Education
D. Volpe: Université de Genève
B. D′Ettorre Piazzoli: Complesso Universitario di Monte Sant’Angelo
X. J. Dong: Chinese Academy of Sciences
J. H. Fan: Guangzhou University
Y. Z. Fan: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Z. X. Fan: Chinese Academy of Sciences
J. Fang: Yunnan University
K. Fang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
C. F. Feng: Shandong University
L. Feng: Chinese Academy of Sciences
S. H. Feng: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Y. L. Feng: Chinese Academy of Sciences
B. Gao: Chinese Academy of Sciences
C. D. Gao: Shandong University
Q. Gao: Key Laboratory of Cosmic Rays (Tibet University), Ministry of Education
W. Gao: Shandong University
M. M. Ge: Yunnan University
L. S. Geng: Chinese Academy of Sciences
G. H. Gong: Tsinghua University
Q. B. Gou: Chinese Academy of Sciences
M. H. Gu: Chinese Academy of Sciences
J. G. Guo: Chinese Academy of Sciences
X. L. Guo: Southwest Jiaotong University
Y. Q. Guo: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Y. Y. Guo: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Y. A. Han: Zhengzhou University
H. H. He: Chinese Academy of Sciences
H. N. He: Chinese Academy of Sciences
J. C. He: Chinese Academy of Sciences
S. L. He: Guangzhou University
X. B. He: Sun Yat-sen University
Y. He: Southwest Jiaotong University
M. Heller: Université de Genève
Y. K. Hor: Sun Yat-sen University
C. Hou: Chinese Academy of Sciences
X. Hou: Chinese Academy of Sciences
H. B. Hu: Chinese Academy of Sciences
S. Hu: Sichuan University
S. C. Hu: Chinese Academy of Sciences
X. J. Hu: Tsinghua University
D. H. Huang: Southwest Jiaotong University
Q. L. Huang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
W. H. Huang: Shandong University
X. T. Huang: Shandong University
Z. C. Huang: Southwest Jiaotong University
F. Ji: Chinese Academy of Sciences
X. L. Ji: Chinese Academy of Sciences
H. Y. Jia: Southwest Jiaotong University
K. Jiang: State Key Laboratory of Particle Detection and Electronics
Z. J. Jiang: Yunnan University
C. Jin: Chinese Academy of Sciences
D. Kuleshov: Institute for Nuclear Research of Russian Academy of Sciences
K. Levochkin: Institute for Nuclear Research of Russian Academy of Sciences
B. B. Li: Hebei Normal University
Cong Li: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Cheng Li: State Key Laboratory of Particle Detection and Electronics
F. Li: Chinese Academy of Sciences
H. B. Li: Chinese Academy of Sciences
H. C. Li: Chinese Academy of Sciences
H. Y. Li: University of Science and Technology of China
J. Li: Chinese Academy of Sciences
K. Li: Chinese Academy of Sciences
W. L. Li: Shandong University
X. Li: State Key Laboratory of Particle Detection and Electronics
Xin Li: Southwest Jiaotong University
X. R. Li: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Y. Li: Sichuan University
Y. Z. Li: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Zhe Li: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Zhuo Li: Peking University
E. W. Liang: Guangxi University
Y. F. Liang: Guangxi University
S. J. Lin: Sun Yat-sen University
B. Liu: University of Science and Technology of China
C. Liu: Chinese Academy of Sciences
D. Liu: Shandong University
H. Liu: Southwest Jiaotong University
H. D. Liu: Zhengzhou University
J. Liu: Chinese Academy of Sciences
J. L. Liu: Shanghai Jiao Tong University
J. S. Liu: Sun Yat-sen University
J. Y. Liu: Chinese Academy of Sciences
M. Y. Liu: Key Laboratory of Cosmic Rays (Tibet University), Ministry of Education
R. Y. Liu: Nanjing University
S. M. Liu: Chinese Academy of Sciences
W. Liu: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Y. N. Liu: Tsinghua University
Z. X. Liu: Sichuan University
W. J. Long: Southwest Jiaotong University
R. Lu: Yunnan University
H. K. Lv: Chinese Academy of Sciences
B. Q. Ma: Peking University
L. L. Ma: Chinese Academy of Sciences
X. H. Ma: Chinese Academy of Sciences
J. R. Mao: Chinese Academy of Sciences
A. Masood: Southwest Jiaotong University
W. Mitthumsiri: Mahidol University
T. Montaruli: Université de Genève
Y. C. Nan: Shandong University
B. Y. Pang: Southwest Jiaotong University
P. Pattarakijwanich: Mahidol University
Z. Y. Pei: Guangzhou University
M. Y. Qi: Chinese Academy of Sciences
D. Ruffolo: Mahidol University
V. Rulev: Institute for Nuclear Research of Russian Academy of Sciences
A. Sáiz: Mahidol University
L. Shao: Hebei Normal University
O. Shchegolev: Institute for Nuclear Research of Russian Academy of Sciences
X. D. Sheng: Chinese Academy of Sciences
J. R. Shi: Chinese Academy of Sciences
H. C. Song: Peking University
Yu. V. Stenkin: Institute for Nuclear Research of Russian Academy of Sciences
V. Stepanov: Institute for Nuclear Research of Russian Academy of Sciences
Q. N. Sun: Southwest Jiaotong University
X. N. Sun: Guangxi University
Z. B. Sun: Chinese Academy of Sciences
P. H. T. Tam: Sun Yat-sen University
Z. B. Tang: State Key Laboratory of Particle Detection and Electronics
W. W. Tian: University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
B. D. Wang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
C. Wang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
H. Wang: Southwest Jiaotong University
H. G. Wang: Guangzhou University
J. C. Wang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
J. S. Wang: Shanghai Jiao Tong University
L. P. Wang: Shandong University
L. Y. Wang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
R. N. Wang: Southwest Jiaotong University
W. Wang: Sun Yat-sen University
W. Wang: Wuhan University
X. G. Wang: Guangxi University
X. J. Wang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
X. Y. Wang: Nanjing University
Y. D. Wang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Y. J. Wang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Y. P. Wang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Zheng Wang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Zhen Wang: Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Z. H. Wang: Sichuan University
Z. X. Wang: Yunnan University
D. M. Wei: Chinese Academy of Sciences
J. J. Wei: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Y. J. Wei: Chinese Academy of Sciences
T. Wen: Yunnan University
C. Y. Wu: Chinese Academy of Sciences
H. R. Wu: Chinese Academy of Sciences
S. Wu: Chinese Academy of Sciences
W. X. Wu: Southwest Jiaotong University
X. F. Wu: Chinese Academy of Sciences
S. Q. Xi: Southwest Jiaotong University
J. Xia: University of Science and Technology of China
J. J. Xia: Southwest Jiaotong University
G. M. Xiang: University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
G. Xiao: Chinese Academy of Sciences
H. B. Xiao: Guangzhou University
G. G. Xin: Wuhan University
Y. L. Xin: Southwest Jiaotong University
Y. Xing: Chinese Academy of Sciences
D. L. Xu: Shanghai Jiao Tong University
R. X. Xu: Peking University
L. Xue: Shandong University
D. H. Yan: Chinese Academy of Sciences
C. W. Yang: Sichuan University
F. F. Yang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
J. Y. Yang: Sun Yat-sen University
L. L. Yang: Sun Yat-sen University
M. J. Yang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
R. Z. Yang: University of Science and Technology of China
S. B. Yang: Yunnan University
Y. H. Yao: Sichuan University
Z. G. Yao: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Y. M. Ye: Tsinghua University
L. Q. Yin: Chinese Academy of Sciences
N. Yin: Shandong University
X. H. You: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Z. Y. You: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Y. H. Yu: Shandong University
Q. Yuan: Chinese Academy of Sciences
H. D. Zeng: Chinese Academy of Sciences
T. X. Zeng: Chinese Academy of Sciences
W. Zeng: Yunnan University
Z. K. Zeng: Chinese Academy of Sciences
M. Zha: Chinese Academy of Sciences
X. X. Zhai: Chinese Academy of Sciences
B. B. Zhang: Nanjing University
H. M. Zhang: Nanjing University
H. Y. Zhang: Shandong University
J. L. Zhang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
J. W. Zhang: Sichuan University
L. Zhang: Hebei Normal University
Li Zhang: Yunnan University
L. X. Zhang: Guangzhou University
P. F. Zhang: Yunnan University
P. P. Zhang: Hebei Normal University
R. Zhang: University of Science and Technology of China
S. R. Zhang: Hebei Normal University
S. S. Zhang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
X. Zhang: Nanjing University
X. P. Zhang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Yong Zhang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Yi Zhang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Y. F. Zhang: Southwest Jiaotong University
Y. L. Zhang: Chinese Academy of Sciences
B. Zhao: Southwest Jiaotong University
J. Zhao: Chinese Academy of Sciences
L. Zhao: State Key Laboratory of Particle Detection and Electronics
L. Z. Zhao: Hebei Normal University
S. P. Zhao: Chinese Academy of Sciences
F. Zheng: Chinese Academy of Sciences
Y. Zheng: Southwest Jiaotong University
B. Zhou: Chinese Academy of Sciences
H. Zhou: Shanghai Jiao Tong University
J. N. Zhou: Chinese Academy of Sciences
P. Zhou: Nanjing University
R. Zhou: Sichuan University
X. X. Zhou: Southwest Jiaotong University
C. G. Zhu: Shandong University
F. R. Zhu: Southwest Jiaotong University
H. Zhu: Chinese Academy of Sciences
K. J. Zhu: Chinese Academy of Sciences
X. Zuo: Chinese Academy of Sciences

Nature, 2021, vol. 594, issue 7861, 33-36

Abstract: Abstract The extension of the cosmic-ray spectrum beyond 1 petaelectronvolt (PeV; 1015 electronvolts) indicates the existence of the so-called PeVatrons—cosmic-ray factories that accelerate particles to PeV energies. We need to locate and identify such objects to find the origin of Galactic cosmic rays1. The principal signature of both electron and proton PeVatrons is ultrahigh-energy (exceeding 100 TeV) γ radiation. Evidence of the presence of a proton PeVatron has been found in the Galactic Centre, according to the detection of a hard-spectrum radiation extending to 0.04 PeV (ref. 2). Although γ-rays with energies slightly higher than 0.1 PeV have been reported from a few objects in the Galactic plane3–6, unbiased identification and in-depth exploration of PeVatrons requires detection of γ-rays with energies well above 0.1 PeV. Here we report the detection of more than 530 photons at energies above 100 teraelectronvolts and up to 1.4 PeV from 12 ultrahigh-energy γ-ray sources with a statistical significance greater than seven standard deviations. Despite having several potential counterparts in their proximity, including pulsar wind nebulae, supernova remnants and star-forming regions, the PeVatrons responsible for the ultrahigh-energy γ-rays have not yet been firmly localized and identified (except for the Crab Nebula), leaving open the origin of these extreme accelerators.

Date: 2021
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DOI: 10.1038/s41586-021-03498-z

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