Adaptive locomotion of active solids

Jonas Veenstra, Colin Scheibner, Martin Brandenbourger, Jack Binysh, Anton Souslov, Vincenzo Vitelli () and Corentin Coulais ()
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Jonas Veenstra: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Colin Scheibner: University of Chicago
Martin Brandenbourger: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Jack Binysh: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Anton Souslov: Cavendish Laboratory
Vincenzo Vitelli: University of Chicago
Corentin Coulais: Universiteit van Amsterdam

Nature, 2025, vol. 639, issue 8056, 935-941

Abstract: Abstract Active systems composed of energy-generating microscopic constituents are a promising platform to create autonomous functional materials1–16 that can, for example, locomote through complex and unpredictable environments. Yet coaxing these energy sources into useful mechanical work has proved challenging. Here we engineer active solids based on centimetre-scale building blocks that perform adaptive locomotion. These prototypes exhibit a non-variational form of elasticity characterized by odd moduli8,12,17, whose magnitude we predict from microscopics using coarse-grained theories and which we validate experimentally. When interacting with an external environment, these active solids spontaneously undergo limit cycles of shape changes, which naturally lead to locomotion such as rolling and crawling. The robustness of the locomotion is rooted in an emergent feedback loop between the active solid and the environment, which is mediated by elastic deformations and stresses. As a result, our active solids are able to accelerate, adjust their gaits and locomote through a variety of terrains with a similar performance to more complex control strategies implemented by neural networks. Our work establishes active solids as a bridge between materials and robots and suggests decentralized strategies to control the nonlinear dynamics of biological systems8,18–22, soft materials5,6,9,11,12,23–25 and driven nanomechanical devices7,26–30.

Date: 2025
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DOI: 10.1038/s41586-025-08646-3

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