Mapping the adaptive landscape of Batesian mimicry using 3D-printed stimuli

Christopher H. Taylor (), David James George Watson, John Skelhorn, Danny Bell, Simon Burdett, Aoife Codyre, Kathryn Cooley, James R. Davies, Joshua Joseph Dawson, Tahiré D’Cruz, Samir Raj Gandhi, Hannah J. Jackson, Rebecca Lowe, Elizabeth Ogilvie, Alexandra Lei Pond, Hallie Rees, Joseph Richardson, Joshua Sains, Francis Short, Christopher Brignell, Gabrielle L. Davidson, Hannah M. Rowland, Mark East, Ruth Goodridge, Francis Gilbert and Tom Reader
Additional contact information
Christopher H. Taylor: University of Nottingham
David James George Watson: University of Nottingham
John Skelhorn: Newcastle University
Danny Bell: University of Nottingham
Simon Burdett: University of Nottingham
Aoife Codyre: University of Nottingham
Kathryn Cooley: University of Nottingham
James R. Davies: University of Nottingham
Joshua Joseph Dawson: University of Nottingham
Tahiré D’Cruz: University of Nottingham
Samir Raj Gandhi: University of Nottingham
Hannah J. Jackson: University of Nottingham
Rebecca Lowe: University of Nottingham
Elizabeth Ogilvie: University of Nottingham
Alexandra Lei Pond: University of Nottingham
Hallie Rees: University of Nottingham
Joseph Richardson: University of Nottingham
Joshua Sains: University of Nottingham
Francis Short: University of Nottingham
Christopher Brignell: University of Nottingham
Gabrielle L. Davidson: University of Cambridge
Hannah M. Rowland: Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology
Mark East: University of Nottingham
Ruth Goodridge: University of Nottingham
Francis Gilbert: University of Nottingham
Tom Reader: University of Nottingham

Nature, 2025, vol. 644, issue 8077, 706-713

Abstract: Abstract In a classic example of adaptation, harmless Batesian mimics gain protection from predators through resemblance to one or more unpalatable models1,2. Mimics vary greatly in accuracy, and explaining the persistence of inaccurate mimics is an ongoing challenge for evolutionary biologists3,4. Empirical testing of existing hypotheses is constrained by the difficulty of assessing the fitness of phenotypes absent among extant species, leaving large parts of the adaptive landscape unexplored5—a problem affecting the study of the evolution of most complex traits. Here, to address this, we created mimetic phenotypes that occupy hypothetical areas of trait space by morphing between 3D images of real insects (flies and wasps), and tested the responses of real predators to high-resolution, full-colour 3D-printed reproductions of these phenotypes. We found that birds have an excellent ability to learn to discriminate among insects on the basis of subtle differences in appearance, but this ability is weaker for pattern and shape than for colour and size traits. We found that mimics gained no special protection from intermediate resemblance to multiple model phenotypes. However, discrimination ability was lower in some invertebrate predators (especially crab spiders and mantises), highlighting that the predator community is key to explaining the apparent inaccuracy of many mimics.

Date: 2025
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DOI: 10.1038/s41586-025-09216-3

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