The evolution of hominin bipedalism in two steps

Gayani Senevirathne, Serena C. Fernandopulle, Daniel Richard, Stephanie L. Baumgart, Anika Liv Christensen, Matteo Fabbri, Jakob Höppner, Harald Jüppner, Peishu Li, Vivien Bothe, Nadia Fröbisch, Ian Simcock, Owen J. Arthurs, Alistair Calder, Naomi Freilich, Niamh C. Nowlan, Ian A. Glass, April Craft and Terence D. Capellini ()
Additional contact information
Gayani Senevirathne: Harvard University
Serena C. Fernandopulle: Harvard University
Daniel Richard: Harvard University
Stephanie L. Baumgart: University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine
Anika Liv Christensen: Harvard University
Matteo Fabbri: John Hopkins University School of Medicine
Jakob Höppner: Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School
Harald Jüppner: Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School
Peishu Li: Ohio University Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine
Vivien Bothe: Museum für Naturkunde
Nadia Fröbisch: Museum für Naturkunde
Ian Simcock: Great Ormond Street Hospital
Owen J. Arthurs: Great Ormond Street Hospital
Alistair Calder: Great Ormond Street Hospital
Naomi Freilich: Harvard University
Niamh C. Nowlan: School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering and University College Dublin (UCD) Conway Institute
Ian A. Glass: University of Washington
April Craft: Harvard Medical School
Terence D. Capellini: Harvard University

Nature, 2025, vol. 645, issue 8082, 952-963

Abstract: Abstract Bipedalism is a human-defining trait1–3. It is made possible by the familiar, bowl-shaped pelvis, whose short, wide iliac blades curve along the sides of the body to stabilize walking and support internal organs and a large-brained, broad-shouldered baby4–6. The ilium changes compared with living primates are an evolutionary novelty7. However, how this evolution came about remains unknown. Here, using a multifaceted histological, comparative genomic and functional genomic approach, we identified the developmental bases of the morphogenetic shifts in the human pelvis that made bipedalism possible. First, we observe that the human ilium cartilage growth plate underwent a heterotopic shift, residing perpendicular to the orientation present in other primate (and mouse) ilia. Second, we observe heterochronic and heterotopic shifts in ossification that are unlike those in non-human primate ilia or human long bones. Ossification initiates posteriorly, resides externally with fibroblast (and perichondral) cells contributing to osteoblasts, and is delayed compared with other bones in humans and with primate ilia. Underlying these two shifts are regulatory changes in an integrated chondrocyte–perichondral–osteoblast pathway, involving complex hierarchical interactions between SOX9–ZNF521–PTH1R and RUNX2–FOXP1/2. These innovations facilitated further growth of the human pelvis and the unique formation of the ilium among primates.

Date: 2025
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DOI: 10.1038/s41586-025-09399-9

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