Defence spending and real growth in an asymmetric environment: Accessing evidence from a developing economy

Adedeji Daniel Gbadebo, Festus Victor Bekun, Joseph Olorunfemi Akande and Ahmed Oluwatobi Adekunle

International Journal of Finance & Economics, 2025, vol. 30, issue 2, 1372-1389

Abstract: The connection between the defence spending and real growth remains a forefront subject of theoretical and empirical research. Nigeria, like many other developing nations, continues to devote numerous fiscal resources to military spending in ensuring peaceful coexistence and to attain sustainable economic growth after her independence in 1960. Because the interdependence between them has policy implications, this paper studies whether there exists asymmetric causality between them. The dataset, from World Bank database, includes long‐range historical series for military expenditure/GDP ratio and growth rate of GDP, covering 1960–2021. In exploring the empirical relations, the paper shows evidence for the symmetric Granger causality, from Toda–Yamamoto (1995) and asymmetric causality, from Hatemi‐J (2012). The standard (symmetric) identifies unidirectional causality evidence, from defence spending to the GDP per capital growth, with no retained potential feedback from real growth to defence spending. The Hatemi‐J (asymmetric) causality maintains evidence that positive shocks in the defence spending may cause a positive shock in the GDP per capital, supposing that increase perturbations to defence spending would be productive and growth‐enhancing. This causal impact is not evident for positive growth shocks. The findings support the need for policymakers to consider sustained growth targets when redesigning the military budget.

Date: 2025
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