Configurations, not thresholds: the middle-income trap in the CEE members of the OECD

Zoltan Bartha

Papers from arXiv.org

Abstract: The middle-income trap is usually identified by comparing a country's income to a threshold. This reveals that convergence has stalled but not where the blockage lies, and it leaves unexplained why the trap is still debated in countries that have already passed the threshold. This study treats the trap as a configuration problem, measuring development along three dimensions - future, outside, and inside potential - with indices built from standardised indicators. The indices are calculated for 34 OECD members in 2000, 2010, and 2020, so that changes in configuration become visible, and the resulting country clusters are interpreted through factor analysis. Two traps and two transition strategies emerge. The first strategy attracts foreign investment and technology, but can itself become a trap: domestic value added stays limited and rising wages erode export competitiveness. The second adds a developmental state focused on the quality of education, building the human capital that raises productivity and innovation. All six CEE members of the OECD had adopted the first strategy by 2010; by 2020 only Estonia had completed the second. Configuration levels and changes track relative income convergence.

Date: 2026-10
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Published in European Journal of Development Research 2026

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