Mind the M’s: A Review of the Implications of Menstruation, Maternity, and Menopause for Work Performance and Attendance

Morien El Haj, Jana Decuyper, Eline Moens, Stijn Baert () and Elsy Verhofstadt
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Morien El Haj: Ghent University
Jana Decuyper: Ghent University
Eline Moens: Ghent University
Stijn Baert: Ghent University
Elsy Verhofstadt: Ghent University

No 19016, IZA Discussion Papers from IZA Network @ LISER

Abstract: Menstruation, maternity, and menopause, collectively referred to as the three M’s, affect many employees as a growing number of women participate in the labour force. However, their implications for these women’s working lives have received limited and fragmented attention in the literature. This study therefore provides the first systematic literature review integrating evidence on the impact of the three M’s on work performance and attendance. Following the SPIDER framework and PRISMA guidelines, this study systematically reviews 57 articles. Across all three M’s, findings consistently show reduced work performance, increased presenteeism, and higher absenteeism, explained by interacting biological, psychological, and contextual factors. This study also identifies important limitations in the existing literature, including the dominance of cross-sectional designs, the reliance on subjective measures, and the lack of attention to workplace solutions that address the three M’s collectively.

Keywords: menstruation; maternity; menopause; work performance; work attendance (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: J16 J22 J24 J28 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2026-10
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