The dynamics of accelerating end-of-life rare earth permanent magnet recycling: A technological innovation systems approach

Maarten Koese, Sander van Nielen, Jessie Bradley and René Kleijn

Applied Energy, 2025, vol. 388, issue C, No S0306261925004374

Abstract: Demand for rare earth permanent magnets (REPMs) has grown drastically the past decades and is expected to increase further due to their use in electronics, electric vehicles and wind turbines. Rare earth supply challenges have increased the urgency to recycle End-of-Life (EoL) REPMs. This paper examined the development of global EoL REPM recycling by applying the Technological Innovation Systems (TIS) framework, assessing temporal development and dynamics between different aspects of the system. The analysis showed an acceleration of recycling innovation activities since 2013, evidenced by e.g. research and development initiatives, (commercial) pilot plants and media and policy attention. Activities were identified globally, with regional concentration of some functions. Innovation in EoL REPM recycling is mainly driven by policies and positive expectations, while entrepreneurial activities also contribute. The EoL REPM recycling TIS holds potential for further growth, if sufficient supplies of recyclable material are secured and a demand for recycled magnets is created. These goals can be achieved by developing the capacity to handle a diversity of waste products, by making recycling cost-effective, or by finding other marketing approaches for recycled magnets. This would enable the emergence of an independent market. Together with other circular economy solutions, EoL REPM recycling can contribute to a more sustainable and resilient magnet supply.

Keywords: Rare earth permanent magnets; Recycling; Technological innovation systems; Circular economy; Supply chain resilience; Critical minerals (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2025
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DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125707

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