The structure of liquid carbon elucidated by in situ X-ray diffraction

Kraus, D.; Rips, J.; Schörner, M.; Stevenson, M. G.; Vorberger, J.; Ranjan, D.; Lütgert, J.; Heuser, B.; Eggert, J. H.; Liermann, H.-P.; Oleynik, I. I.; Pandolfi, S.; Redmer, R.; Sollier, A.; Strohm, C.; Volz, T. J.; Albertazzi, B.; Ali, S. J.; Antonelli, L.; Bähtz, C.; Ball, O. B.; Banerjee, S.; Belonoshko, A. B.; Bolme, C. A.; Bouffetier, V.; Briggs, R.; Buakor, K.; Butcher, T.; Cerantola, V.; Chantel, J.; Coleman, A. L.; Collier, J.; Collins, G. W.; Comley, A. J.; Cowan, T. E.; Cristoforetti, G.; Cynn, H.; Descamps, A.; Cicco, A.; Cafiso, S. Dio; Dorchies, F.; Duff, M. J.; Dwivedi, A.; Edwards, C.; Errandonea, D.; Galitskiy, S.; Galtier, E.; Ginestet, H.; Gizzi, L.; Gleason, A.; Göde, S.; Gonzalez, J. M.; Gorman, M. G.; Harmand, M.; Hartley, N. J.; Heighway, P. G.; Hernandez-Gomez, C.; Higginbotham, A.; Höppner, H.; Husband, R. J.; Hutchinson, T. M.; Hwang, H.; Keen, D. A.; Kim, J.; Koester, P.; Konôpková, Z.; Krygier, A.; Labate, L.; Garcia, A. Laso; Lazicki, A. E.; Lee, Y.; Mason, P.; Masruri, M.; Massani, B.; McBride, E. E.; McHardy, J. D.; McGonegle, D.; McGuire, C.; McWilliams, R. S.; Merkel, S.; Morard, G.; Nagler, B.; Nakatsutsumi, M.; Nguyen-Cong, K.; Norton, A.-M.; Ozaki, N.; Otzen, C.; Peake, D. J.; Pelka, A.; Pereira, K. A.; Phillips, J. P.; Prescher, C.; Preston, T. R.; Randolph, L.; Ravasio, A.; Santamaria-Perez, D.; Savage, D. J.; Schölmerich, M.; Schwinkendorf, J.-P.; Singh, S.; Smith, J.; Smith, R. F.; Spear, J.; Spindloe, C.; Suer, T.-A.; Tang, M.; Toncian, M.; Toncian, T.; Tracy, S. J.; Trapananti, A.; Vennari, C. E.; Vinci, T.; Tyldesley, M.; Vogel, S. C.; Walsh, J. P. S.; Wark, J. S.; Willman, J. T.; Wollenweber, L.; Zastrau, U.; Brambrink, E.; Appel, K.; McMahon, M. I.

The structure of liquid carbon elucidated by in situ X-ray diffraction

D. Kraus (), J. Rips, M. Schörner, M. G. Stevenson, J. Vorberger, D. Ranjan, J. Lütgert, B. Heuser, J. H. Eggert, H.-P. Liermann, I. I. Oleynik, S. Pandolfi, R. Redmer, A. Sollier, C. Strohm, T. J. Volz, B. Albertazzi, S. J. Ali, L. Antonelli, C. Bähtz, O. B. Ball, S. Banerjee, A. B. Belonoshko, C. A. Bolme, V. Bouffetier, R. Briggs, K. Buakor, T. Butcher, V. Cerantola, J. Chantel, A. L. Coleman, J. Collier, G. W. Collins, A. J. Comley, T. E. Cowan, G. Cristoforetti, H. Cynn, A. Descamps, A. Cicco, S. Dio Cafiso, F. Dorchies, M. J. Duff, A. Dwivedi, C. Edwards, D. Errandonea, S. Galitskiy, E. Galtier, H. Ginestet, L. Gizzi, A. Gleason, S. Göde, J. M. Gonzalez, M. G. Gorman, M. Harmand, N. J. Hartley, P. G. Heighway, C. Hernandez-Gomez, A. Higginbotham, H. Höppner, R. J. Husband, T. M. Hutchinson, H. Hwang, D. A. Keen, J. Kim, P. Koester, Z. Konôpková, A. Krygier, L. Labate, A. Laso Garcia, A. E. Lazicki, Y. Lee, P. Mason, M. Masruri, B. Massani, E. E. McBride, J. D. McHardy, D. McGonegle, C. McGuire, R. S. McWilliams, S. Merkel, G. Morard, B. Nagler, M. Nakatsutsumi, K. Nguyen-Cong, A.-M. Norton, N. Ozaki, C. Otzen, D. J. Peake, A. Pelka, K. A. Pereira, J. P. Phillips, C. Prescher, T. R. Preston, L. Randolph, A. Ravasio, D. Santamaria-Perez, D. J. Savage, M. Schölmerich, J.-P. Schwinkendorf, S. Singh, J. Smith, R. F. Smith, J. Spear, C. Spindloe, T.-A. Suer, M. Tang, M. Toncian, T. Toncian, S. J. Tracy, A. Trapananti, C. E. Vennari, T. Vinci, M. Tyldesley, S. C. Vogel, J. P. S. Walsh, J. S. Wark, J. T. Willman, L. Wollenweber, U. Zastrau, E. Brambrink, K. Appel and M. I. McMahon
Additional contact information
D. Kraus: Universität Rostock
J. Rips: Universität Rostock
M. Schörner: Universität Rostock
M. G. Stevenson: Universität Rostock
J. Vorberger: Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR)
D. Ranjan: Universität Rostock
J. Lütgert: Universität Rostock
B. Heuser: Universität Rostock
J. H. Eggert: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
H.-P. Liermann: Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY
I. I. Oleynik: University of South Florida
S. Pandolfi: Sorbonne Université, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Insitut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie (IMPMC)
R. Redmer: Universität Rostock
A. Sollier: CEA DAM Île-de-France
C. Strohm: Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY
T. J. Volz: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
B. Albertazzi: Ecole Polytechnique
S. J. Ali: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
L. Antonelli: University of York
C. Bähtz: Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR)
O. B. Ball: The University of Edinburgh
S. Banerjee: STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
A. B. Belonoshko: Nanjing University
C. A. Bolme: Los Alamos National Laboratory
V. Bouffetier: European XFEL
R. Briggs: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
K. Buakor: European XFEL
T. Butcher: STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
V. Cerantola: Università degli Studi di Milano Bicocca
J. Chantel: Centrale Lille
A. L. Coleman: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
J. Collier: STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
G. W. Collins: University of Rochester
A. J. Comley: Aldermaston
T. E. Cowan: Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR)
G. Cristoforetti: CNR - Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche
H. Cynn: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
A. Descamps: Queen’s University Belfast
A. Cicco: Università di Camerino
S. Dio Cafiso: Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR)
F. Dorchies: Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, CEA
M. J. Duff: The University of Edinburgh
A. Dwivedi: European XFEL
C. Edwards: STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
D. Errandonea: Universidad de Valencia
S. Galitskiy: University of South Florida
E. Galtier: SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
H. Ginestet: Centrale Lille
L. Gizzi: CNR - Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche
A. Gleason: SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
S. Göde: European XFEL
J. M. Gonzalez: University of South Florida
M. G. Gorman: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
M. Harmand: Sorbonne Université UMR CNRS
N. J. Hartley: SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
P. G. Heighway: University of Oxford
C. Hernandez-Gomez: STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
A. Higginbotham: University of York
H. Höppner: Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR)
R. J. Husband: Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY
T. M. Hutchinson: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
H. Hwang: Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY
D. A. Keen: STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
J. Kim: Hanyang University
P. Koester: (CNR - INO)
Z. Konôpková: European XFEL
A. Krygier: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
L. Labate: (CNR - INO)
A. Laso Garcia: Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR)
A. E. Lazicki: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Y. Lee: Yonsei University
P. Mason: STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
M. Masruri: Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR)
B. Massani: The University of Edinburgh
E. E. McBride: Queen’s University Belfast
J. D. McHardy: The University of Edinburgh
D. McGonegle: Aldermaston
C. McGuire: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
R. S. McWilliams: The University of Edinburgh
S. Merkel: Centrale Lille
G. Morard: University of Grenoble Alpes, University of Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS, IRD, University of Gustave Eiffel, ISTerre
B. Nagler: SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
M. Nakatsutsumi: European XFEL
K. Nguyen-Cong: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
A.-M. Norton: University of York
N. Ozaki: University of Osaka
C. Otzen: Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg
D. J. Peake: University of Oxford
A. Pelka: Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR)
K. A. Pereira: University of Massachusetts Amherst
J. P. Phillips: STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
C. Prescher: Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg
T. R. Preston: European XFEL
L. Randolph: European XFEL
A. Ravasio: Ecole Polytechnique
D. Santamaria-Perez: Universidad de Valencia
D. J. Savage: Los Alamos National Laboratory
M. Schölmerich: Paul Scherrer Institut
J.-P. Schwinkendorf: Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR)
S. Singh: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
J. Smith: STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
R. F. Smith: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
J. Spear: STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
C. Spindloe: STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
T.-A. Suer: University of Rochester
M. Tang: Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY
M. Toncian: Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR)
T. Toncian: Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR)
S. J. Tracy: Carnegie Science
A. Trapananti: Università di Camerino
C. E. Vennari: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
T. Vinci: Ecole Polytechnique
M. Tyldesley: STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
S. C. Vogel: Los Alamos National Laboratory
J. P. S. Walsh: University of Massachusetts Amherst
J. S. Wark: University of Oxford
J. T. Willman: University of South Florida
L. Wollenweber: European XFEL
U. Zastrau: European XFEL
E. Brambrink: European XFEL
K. Appel: European XFEL
M. I. McMahon: The University of Edinburgh

Nature, 2025, vol. 642, issue 8067, 351-355

Abstract: Abstract Carbon has a central role in biology and organic chemistry, and its solid allotropes provide the basis of much of our modern technology1. However, the liquid form of carbon remains nearly uncharted2, and the structure of liquid carbon and most of its physical properties are essentially unknown3. But liquid carbon is relevant for modelling planetary interiors4,5 and the atmospheres of white dwarfs6, as an intermediate state for the synthesis of advanced carbon materials7,8, inertial confinement fusion implosions9, hypervelocity impact events on carbon materials10 and our general understanding of structured fluids at extreme conditions11. Here we present a precise structure measurement of liquid carbon at pressures of around 1 million atmospheres obtained by in situ X-ray diffraction at an X-ray free-electron laser. Our results show a complex fluid with transient bonding and approximately four nearest neighbours on average, in agreement with quantum molecular dynamics simulations. The obtained data substantiate the understanding of the liquid state of one of the most abundant elements in the universe and can test models of the melting line. The demonstrated experimental abilities open the path to performing similar studies of the structure of liquids composed of light elements at extreme conditions.

Date: 2025
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DOI: 10.1038/s41586-025-09035-6

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