Geographic disparities in service accessibility in Estonia and the Netherlands: How transport modes, proximity and capacity shape accessibility across cities, towns and rural areas

Vanda Almeida, Filippo Brunelli, Jakub Caisl, Alessandro Giordano, Claire Hoffmann, Sebastian Königs, Ana I. Moreno-Monroy, Tainá Pacheco and Mauricio Salazar-Lozada

No 333, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers from OECD Publishing

Abstract: Access to enabling services is an important determinant of labour market participation and social inclusion. This paper examines the role of capacity constraints and public transport access in shaping the accessibility of early childhood education and care (ECEC), primary schools and Public Employment Services (PES) at the municipal level and across degrees of urbanisation in Estonia and the Netherlands, drawing on data on service locations, capacity, enrolment and local transport infrastructure. The results confirm a clear urban-rural gradient in physical accessibility. However, proximity alone provides an incomplete picture: people in urban areas benefit from shorter travel times, but high demand pressure and capacity constraints can result in lower competitive accessibility compared to less densely populated areas. In both countries, 13% to 14% of children in primary school face a double disadvantage of longer travel times and below-median competitive accessibility. For PES, geographic disparities in public transport provision can represent a source of vulnerability for people without access to a private motor vehicle.

Keywords: Geographic; disparities (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: I24 J13 O18 R23 R53 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2026-06-30
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