The State of Rental Discrimination: A Meta-Analytical Comparison of Five Discrimination Grounds in the Housing Market

Pieter-Paul Verhaeghe, Louise Devos Devos, Abel Ghekiere, Stijn Baert () and Louis Lippens ()
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Pieter-Paul Verhaeghe: Vrije Universiteit Brussel
Louise Devos Devos: Ghent University
Abel Ghekiere: Vrije Universiteit Brussel
Stijn Baert: Ghent University
Louis Lippens: Ghent University

No 18788, IZA Discussion Papers from IZA Network @ LISER

Abstract: This meta-analysis compares patterns of rental discrimination across five grounds: ethno-racial origin, gender, sexual orientation, disability, and social origin. We analyze 475 field experimental estimates from 31 countries, published between 2002 and 2024. In the random-effects pooled estimates, discrimination is substantial across all grounds, with the highest levels for ethno-racial origin, social origin, and disability, and smaller penalties for men and same-sex couples. For several grounds, the pooled effect attenuates toward no discrimination after correction for small-study publication bias. Marked heterogeneity exists, including a clear ethno-racial hierarchy with the strongest penalties for Arab, North African or Turkish applicants. Contrary to prior work, discrimination is higher in Europe than in North America for ethno-racial origin and sexual orientation. There is no consistent decline over time, except for social origin. Real estate agents discriminate less than private landlords, but only for ethno-racial origin. Mode-of-contact effects are mixed. Overall, discrimination appears persistent and context-dependent, calling for more targeted and effectively enforced policy interventions.

Keywords: meta-analysis; discrimination; housing; ethnic origin; gender; disability; social origin; sexual orientation (search for similar items in EconPapers)
JEL-codes: C93 J14 J15 J16 J71 R21 (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2026-07
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